PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES 


FOR  THE 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 

SECOND  EDITION 
1910 


I  ! 


PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF  NEW 
HAMPSHmE 


DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 


SECOND  EDITION 
1910 


MANCHESTER,  N.  H. 

PRINTED  BY  THE  JOHN  B.  CLARKE  COMPANY 
1910. 


^  PEEFACE. 


At  the  1905  session  of  the  General  Court,  the  following 
concurrent  resolution  was  passed: 

"That  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  be  author- 
ized and  directed  to  prepare  a  course  of  study  as  a  model  for 
the  common  schools,  and  to  send  one  or  more  copies  to  every 
school  district  in  the  state/' 

In  accordance  with  this  resolution  this  program  is  hereby 
submitted  to  the  local  school  authorities  of  the  state.  It  has 
been  made  adaptable,  both  in  its  schedules  and  in  its  outlines, 
to  all  the  schools  of  the  state,  both  city  and  rural,  both  graded 
and  ungraded  systems. 

The  program  is  based  upon  the  course  of  study  prepared 
by  the  Educational  Council  and  printed  by  the  State  Teach- 
ers' Association  in  1903.  The  present  edition  embodies  no 
material  changes  from  that  of  1905.  Such  changes  as  are 
made  are  chiefly  corrections  of  evident  mistakes  in  the  for- 
mer edition  and  such  adaptations  as  five  additional  years  of 
educational  and  pedagogical  experience  have  seemed  to  jus- 
tify. 

The  superintendent  acknowledges  the  great  value  of  the 
unpaid  services  and  counsel  of  many  teachers  and  school 
officers  to  whom  the  thanks  of  the  department  are  due.  In 
fact,  the  whole  document  may  fairly  be  said  to  represent  the 
teaching  experience  of  the  state,  as  criticisms  and  suggestions 
have  come  to  the  department  from  a  multitude  of  teachers. 

HENRY  C.  MORRISON, 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
Concord,  July  16,  1910. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Page 


Introduction    7 

Chapter  I.    Outline  of  Work    11 

II.  Daily  Time-Table    15 

III.  Heading    20 

IV.  Handwriting    32 

V.  English  Language    30 

VI.  Spelling    49 

VII.  Grammar   52 

VIII.  Arithmetic    55 

IX.  Geography    65 

X.  Physiology  and  Hygiene    73 

XI.  History    78 

XII.  Civil  Government    88 

XIII.  Music    91 

XIV.  Drawing    96 

XV.  Nature  Study  and  Elementary  Agri- 

culture   118 

XVI.  Manual  Training    142 

XVII.  Plays  and  Games   152 

XVIII.  The  Teaching  of  Any  Topic   164 

XIX.  Examinations  and  Testing   167 

Key  to  Abbreviations  Used   169 


INTRODUCTION. 


A  program  of  study,  with  its  subordinate  courses,  is  at  best 
a  line  to  hew  to.  Until  it  is  actualized  in  the  schools,  it  is 
merely  a  thing  of  paper.  The  program  here  submitted  is 
capable  of  rendering  great  service  to  the  local  school  sys- 
tems of  the  state,  but  it  will  accomplish  little  save  as  it  is 
placed  under  efficient,  expert  supervision  for  interpretation 
and  enforcement. 

The  program,  if  desired,  should  be  formally  adopted  by 
each  school  board.  It  is  especially  recommended  that  school 
l)oards,  after  adopting,  neither  make  nor  allow  any  change 
to  be  made  for  at  least  several  years.  One  of  the  banes  of 
school  administration  is  the  frequent  change  of  the  program. 
New  members  of  boards,  new  teachers,  new  superintendents, 
are  prone  to  have  ideas  peculiar  to  themselves,  which  they 
wish  to  have  carried  out  in  the  schools.  The  result  is  fre- 
quent changes  and  destruction  of  the  essential  process  of 
cumulation.  No  program  of  work,  or  other  school  policy, 
is  capable  of  demonstrating  and  securing  its  full  good  effect 
short  of  the  time  it  takes  a  single  class  to  pass  through  the 
full  length  of  school  life.  Nobody  can  claim  to  be  all-wise, 
but  it  is  better  to  seize  upon  and  follow  an  opinion  which 
commends  itself  as  sound  to  those  appointed  to  be  in  author- 
ity than  to  run  a  race  of  opinions,  with  all  the  inevitable 
shifting  involved. 

Much  time  and  thought  has  been  given  to  the  preparation 
of  this  program,  the  minds  of  the  teachers  of  the  State  have 
been,  so  far  as  possible,  ascertained  and  followed,  and  the  best 
educational  authority  of  the  nation  has  been  consulted.  Gaps 
and  inconsistencies  have  probably  crept  in,  and  it  will  always 
be  a  service  to  the  department  to  have  these  pointed  out. 

7 


8 


INTRODUCTION. 


It  is  expected  that  the  institute  work  of  the  coming  years 
will  be  based  npon  the  lines  here  laid  down.  Teachers  may 
consult  the  superintendent  by  mail  or  otherwise,  and  prompt 
answers  will  be  given  so  far  as  the  office  force  of  the  depart- 
ment will  permit.  It  is  expected  that  bulletins  will  from 
time  to  time  be  issued  covering  important  or  difficult  points 
of  instruction,  and  the  same  will  be  mailed  to  all  who  apply 
for  them.  Teachers  should  ask  to  have  their  names  placed 
upon  the  mailing  list  for  such  material. 

School  boards  are  advised  to  allow  and  encourage  teachers 
frequently  to  visit  the  Normal  Schools  at  Plymouth  and 
Iveene,  or  some  nearby  city  school  system,  for  observation  of 
practical  teaching. 

The  program  is  laid  out  on  a  basis  of  thirty  to  thirty-six 
weeks.  Obviously  it  will  be  more  difficult,  but  not  impos- 
sible, to  accomplish  the  results  called  for  in  the  shorter 
period  than  in  the  latter.  The  chief  difference,  however, 
will  usually  be  in  point  of  thoroughness.  Furthermore,  many 
schools  from  their  circumstances  can  accomplish  more  in 
thirty  than  others  in  thirty-six  weeks. 

In  introducing  the  program  where  there  has  previously 
been  no  course  of  study  at  all,  it  cannot  be  expected  that 
the  whole  school  will  be  able  to  follow  it  at  once.  The  enter- 
ing class  can  follow  from  the  beginning,  and  the  younger 
pupils  all  very  closely.  The  older  pupils  will  have  to  approx- 
imate. In  a  few  years,  thus,  the  whole  school  will  be  fol- 
lowing the  program. 

Definitions. 

Elementary  school. 

Grades  I  to  VIII,  inclusive,  usually,  or  the  period  of  school 
the  next  preceding  the  secondary  school,  the  pre-adolescent 
portion  of  the  child's  school  life. 

Secondary  school. 

High  school  or  academy,  usually  grades  IX  to  XII,  inclu- 
sive, the  adolescent  portion  of  the  child's  school  life.  The  sec- 
ondary school  shows  a  tendency  to  reach  down  and  include 
the  last  two  elementary  years,  and  the  whole  course  of  twelve 
years  shows  a  tendency  to  shorten. 


INTRODUCTION. 


9 


Common  school. 

Originally  synonymous  with  what  is  now  known  as  ele- 
mentary school.  The  ^'^common  school"  means  the  school 
which  everybody  is  supposed  to  attend,  as  distinguished  from 
the  school  of  special  privilege  or  opportunity.  The  secondary 
school  is  nearly  as  much  a  common  school  in  New  Hampshire 
as  is  the  elementary. 

Program  of  study. 

The  whole  scheme  of  studies  presented  by  a  school,  often 
inaccurately  called  course  of  study. 

Curriculum. 

A  particular  line  of  study  within  the  program.  Used  in 
secondary  schools  chiefly. 

Course. 

The  work  of  a  single  study  for  a  single  year.  Grade  YI 
arithmetic  is  a  course. 

Time-table. 

The  daily  schedule  of  work. 

Period. 

A  regular  subdivision  of  the  time-table. 
Graded  school. 

A  school  following  a  regular  program  of  study  and  advanc- 
ing pupils  in  accordance  with  their  attainments. 

Classified  school. 

An  elementary  school  in  which  are  enrolled  only  pupils  of 
the  same  grade. 

Grade. 

Pupils  doing  the  work  of  the  same  year. 

Semi-classified  school. 

An  elementary  school  in  which  are  enrolled  pupils  of  sev- 
eral different  grades,  but  not  of  all  grades. 

Mixed  school. 

An  elementary  school  in  which  pupils  of  all  grades  are  en- 
rolled. 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


Primary  school. 
Grades  I  to  IV. 

Grammar  school. 
Grades  V  to  VIII. 

Intermediate  school. 

In  a  system  or  building  consisting  of  three  semi-classified 
elementary  schools  the  middle  is  the  intermediate. 

School. 

A  body  of  pupils  in  charge  of  one  teacher,  for  whom  a  reg- 
ister is  kept.  This  is  the  administrative  distinction.  For 
convenience  all  the  pupils  in  a  single  building  are  often,  in 
common  parlance,  spoken  of  collectively  as  a  school. 


CHAPTER  L 


OUTLINE  OF  WOEK. 


Year  Subjects 
A 

I.  Eeading 
Writing 

Elementary  Ian 
Number 

II.  Reading 
Writing 

Elementary  Ian 
Number 

III.  Reading 
Writing 
Composition 
Spelling 
Arithmetic 

IV.  Literature 
Writing 
Composition 
Spelling 
Arithmetic 

V.  Literature 
Writing 
Composition 
Spelling 
Arithmetic 
Geography 
Physiology  and 
Hygiene 


Periods 

Periods 

per  week 

Subjects 

per  week 

B 

10 

Music 

3  to  5 

5 

Drawing 

2 

i2e  5 

Handwork 

3 

5 

Nature 

2  to  5 

10 

Music 

3  to  5 

5 

Drawing 

2 

ige  5 

Handwork 

6 

5 

Nature 

2  to  5 

5 

Music 

3  to  5 

5 

Drawing 

2 

5 

Handwork 

3 

5 

AT  J- 

Nature 

2  to  5 

5 

5 

Music 

3  to  5 

5 

Drawing 

2 

5 

Handwork 

3 

5 

Nature 

2  to  5 

5 

3 

Music 

3  to  5 

2 

Drawing 

2 

3 

Handwork 

3 

5 

Nature 

2  to  5 

5 

5 

11 


12 


OUTLINE  OF  WORK. 


YI.  Literature 
Writing 
Composition 
Spelling 
Arithmetic 
Geography 
Physiology  and 
Hygiene 


VII. 


VIII. 


Literature 

Composition 

Spelling 

Grammar 

Geography 

History 

Physiology  and 
Hygiene 

Literature 

Composition 

Spelling 

Grammar 

Geography 

History 

Civics 

Physiology  and 
Hygiene 


Music  3  to  5 

Drawing  2 
Manual  Training  3 

Carpentry 

Sewing 
Nature  2  to  5 


Music  3  to  5 

Drawing  2 
Manual  Training  3 

Carpentry 

Sewing 

Cooking 
Nature  2  to  5 

Arithmetic  5 

Music  3 
Drawing  2 
Manual  Training  3 

Carpentry 

Cooking 

Sewing 
Nature  2  to  5 

Arithmetic  5 


Notes. — This  outline  is  designed  for  all  schools,  mixed, 
classified,  and  semi-classified.  It  indicates  in  a  general  way 
what  subjects  should  be  under  instruction  each  year  and  the 
proportion  of  time  which  should  be  given  to  each. 

A  and  B. 

The  subjects  listed  in  Column  A  are  those  which  are  re- 
quisite in  every  school  because  either  required  by  law,  re- 
quired for  admission  to  high  school,  or  essential  as  a  part 
of  the  education  of  the  child  who  has  completed  the  ele- 
mentary school  course  of  study.    The  subjects  listed  in  Col- 


OUTLINE  OF  WORK. 


13 


umn  B  are  more  or  less  optional  in  character,  either  because 
of  inability  of  teachers,  lack  of  money,  reluctance  to  accept 
new  ideas  or  other  cause.  It  should  be  understood,  how- 
ever, that  every  subject  in  Column  B,  from  the  standpoint 
of  educational  science  and  the  rights  of  the  child,  is  as  es- 
sential as  any  subject  in  Column  B.  There  is  no  reason  m 
the  nature  of  things  ivhy  all  should  not  le  taught  in  every 
elementary  school  in  the  state. 

Periods. 

The  columns  showing  number  of  periods  per  week  indi- 
cate only  how  often  a  subject  needs  to  appear  on  the  daily 
time-table, — once  a  day,  twice  a  day,  every  other  day,  and 
so  on.  Obviously  this  arrangement  will  have  to  be  varied 
somewhat  to  meet  the  needs  of  different  schools.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  teacher  will  note  carefully  that  a  subject  is 
often  taught  better  when  it  is  combined  with  some  other  for 
a  day.  For  instance,  the  nature  lesson  for  the  day  will  fre- 
quently be  the  geography  lesson  also. 

Composition. 

Xo  time  is  given  for  composition  in  years  VII  and  VIII 
for  the  reason  that  written  work  in  the  various  subjects  will 
furnish  abundance  of  composition  material  and  should  be 
treated  as  such. 

Arithmetic. 

Under  competent  and  thorough  teaching,  six  years  is  a 
sufficient  period  in  which  to  teach  all  the  arithmetic  a  child 
needs  to  know,  and  arithmetic  is  therefore  transferred  to  the 
B  column  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  year.  Doubtless 
most  schools  will  think  it  necessary  to  carry  arithmetic  on 
throughout  the  elementary  school.  See  also  chapter  on  arith- 
metic. 

Beading. 

In  years  I  to  IV,  nature,  history,  and  geography  stories 
should  form  a  large  part  of  the  material  selected  for  reading 
and  composition.    (See  chapters  on  these  subjects.) 


14 


OUTLINE  OF  WORK. 


Eeading,  as  the  process  of  learning  to  read,  ought  to  be 
complete  at  the  end  of  the  third  year.  After  that  the  prob- 
lem comes  to  be  teaching  the  love  of  good  reading,  and  to 
mark  the  distinction,  the  reading  time  is  thereafter  called 
literature. 

The  years  are  given  in  order  to  show  what  work  children 
of  the  different  years  of  school  life  should  be  doing.  The 
teacher  of  an  ungraded  school  is  cautioned  that  these  differ- 
ent years  should  not  ordinarily  he  used  as  units  for  classes. 
Children  of  several  different  years  may  often  be  taught  in 
the  same  class.  For  instance,  in  the  small  ungraded  school 
of  twenty  pupils  or  less,  all  the  reading  of  the  eight  years 
can  usually  be  handled  in  two  or  three  classes;  all  the  spell- 
ing in  two  classes;  all  the  writing  in  one  or  two  classes,  and 
so  on. 

School  boards  are  cautioned  that  teachers  cannot  get  re- 
spectable results  if  their  schools  are  too  large  or  their  classes 
too  numerous.  If  the  ungraded  school  has  over  thirty 
pupils,  or  if  it  is  found  impossible  to  keep  the  number  of 
regular  periods  per  day  at  eighteen  or  under,  either  another 
school  should  be  started,  or,  better,  an  additional  teacher 
should  be  employed,  and  the  school  can  then  be  partially  clas- 
sified. 

The  time  for  each  period  may  be  as  follows:  first  and  sec- 
ond years,  ten  to  fifteen  minutes;  third  and  fourth  years,  fif- 
teen to  twenty  minutes;  fifth  and  sixth  years,  twenty  to 
twenty-five  minutes;  seventh  and  eighth  years,  thirty  minutes. 
Spelling  should  not  be  given  more  than  fifteen  minutes  to  a 
period  in  any  year;  much  less  will  usually  give  the  best  re- 
sults. These  time  estimates  cover  the  times  during  which 
the  attention  of  children  of  different  ages  can  normally  be 
held,  and  the  teacher  should  train  herself  to  accomplish  les- 
sons within  these  time  limits. 

In  years  I  to  IV,  nature  and  history  stories  should  form  a 
large  part  of  the  material  selected  for  reading  and  language, 
or  composition  exercises.  (See  courses  in  reading,  language, 
nature  and  history.) 


CHAPTEE  IL 


THE  DAILY  TIME-TABLE. 

In  making  and  following  a  daily  time-table,  two  extremes 
must  be  avoided, — on  the  one  hand  neglect  of  the  regular 
order  altogether,  which  is  simple  lack  of  system,  and  on  the 
other  such  slavish  adherence  to  the  time-table  as  to  destroy 
all  spontaneity  and  let  pass  the  many  opportunities  created 
by  the  special  circumstances  of  the  day.  The  time-table, 
like  the  program  of  study,  is  an  excellent  servant  but  a  bad 
master.  Neither  will  take  the  place  of  thoughtfulness  in  the 
teacher. 

The  unit  of  the  time-table  is  the  period,  and  much  trouble 
will  be  avoided  if  teachers  recognize  at  the  outset  that  all 
effective  teaching  must  obey  the  laws  of  fatigue  and  flagging 
power  of  attention  on  the  part  of  pupils.  Effective  teaching 
demands  not  long  periods  but  concentrated  attention  and 
forceful  instruction.  The  ordinary  limits  of  attention  under 
favorable  conditions  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table: 

Limits  op  Attention. 

Grades       I  to  II    10  to  15  minutes. 

Ill  to  IV    15  to  20 

VtoVI    20  to  25 

YlltoVIII....:   25  to  30 

Of  course  the  fatigue  limit  is  reached  much  sooner  in  some 
subjects  than  in  others, — soonest  in  arithmetic  and  spelling, 
later  in  reading  and  geography,  latest  in  handwork  and  draw- 
ing. Again,  the  power  of  sustained  attention  is  greatest  in 
the  morning,  runs  down  somewhat  irregularly  until  about 
an  hour  after  the  opening  of  the  afternoon  session,  and  then 
recovers  somewhat  the  last  hour  of  the  day.  Recess  and 
other  diversions  give  a  brief  recovery  from  fatigue,  and  the 

16 


16 


DAILY  TIME-TABLE. 


general  increase  of  fatigue  through  the  day  is  much  lowered 
by  good  light  and  ventilation,  by  inspiriting  teaching,  and 
by  the  succession  of  unlike  subjects  on  the  time-table,  e.  g., 
by  following  arithmetic  with  reading,  writing,  or  handwork. 
One  of  the  chief  benefits  of  the  subjects  in  Column  B  of  the 
outline  of  work  is  that  they  draw  upon  fresh  brain  areas, 
and  therefore  allow  time  for  recovery  from  fatigue. 

The  construction  of  a  time-table  for  a  classified  or .  semi- 
classified  elementary  school  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter 
so  long  as  the  laws  above  mentioned  are  obeyed.  For  a  mixed 
school  it  is  a  more  difficult  matter.  The  following  sugges- 
tions and  model  are  given,  but  it  must  be  understood  that 
these  are  only  suggestions.  The  individual  teacher  must 
adapt  them  to  her  own  conditions. 

Time-table  for  Mixed  School. 

This  time-table  assumes  a  school  of  twenty  to  thirty  pupils, 
registering  children  in  each  of  eight  grades, — a  set  of  condi- 
tions much  more  difficult  than  is  common. 


EOEEiNOON. 


9.00- 

-  9.05. 

Opening  exercises. 

9.05- 

-  9.55. 

Arithmetic  and  number. 

9.55- 

-10.05. 

Reading  I. 

10.05- 

-10.15. 

Reading  II. 

10.15- 

-10.30.  , 

Composition.  • 

10.30- 

-10.40. 

Recess. 

10.40- 

-10.50. 

Spelling. 

10.50- 

-11.00. 

Writing. 

11.00- 

-11.20. 

Grammar  I. 

11.20- 

-11.40. 

Grammar  II. 

11.40- 

-12.00. 

Nature  or  music. 

AFTERNOON. 


1.30—  1.50. 

1.50—  2.10. 


Geograpliy  I. 
Geography  II. 


DAILY  TIME-TABLE. 


17 


2.10 —  2.20.  Eeading  I  and  elementary  language. 

2.20 —  2.30.  Eeading  II  and  elementary  language. 

2.30—  2.50.  History  I. 

2.50—  3.10.  History  II. 

3.10—  3.20.  Eecess. 

3.20—  3.40.  Eeading  III  and  IV,  alternating. 

3.40 —  4.00.  Physiology  and  hygiene  (several  classes  al- 
ternating). 

4.00 —  4.30.  Handwork  or  manual  training  and  draw- 
ing, alternating. 

Notes. — The  time-table  as  above  outlined  can  of  course 
be  simplified  in  case  there  are  some  grades  in  which  there 
are  no  pupils,  as  is  usually  the  case.  As  it  is,  it  will  be  noted 
that  there  are  but  nineteen  periods  exclusive  of  recesses  in 
place  of  the  thirty  or  forty  which  are  often  felt  to  be  neces- 
sary. 

In  following  this  or  any  other  time-table,  and  improving 
upon  the  same,  certain  principles  must  be  observed  in  addi- 
tion to  those  already  noted. 

I.  The  teacher  must  conceive  her  schoolroom  to  be  a 
workshop  in  which  teacher  and  pupils  are  working  together 
in  the  process  of  learning,  rather  than  a  hall  of  judgment  in 
which  the  teacher's  sole  business  is  to  find  out  whether  or 
not  the  children  have  learned  lessons.  No  home  work  ought 
to  he  required  in  any  class  or  grade  of  elementary  school,  rural 
or  urban,  mixed  or  classified.  The  schoolroom  is  the  place 
for  school  work  and  the  child's  out-of-school  hours  ought  to 
be  left  free. 

II.  Children  at  about  the  same  degree  of  attainment  in  a 
given  subject  ought  to  be  handled  together.  The  behests 
of  parents  to  have  separate  classes  formed  for  their  children 
should  be  respectfully  but  firmly  resisted.  On  the  other 
hand,  children  of  more  than  average  ability  should  be  allowed 
to  advance  as  rapidly  as  safety  will  permit.  Both  the  above 
principles  if  followed  will  have  a  tendency  to  reduce  the 
number  of  classes  as  the  school  year  goes  on. 


18 


DAILY  TIME-TABLE. 


III.  In  some  cases  the  school  should  be  handled  together, 
notably  in  arithmetic,  composition,  spelling,  writing,  and 
handwork.  To  illustrate,  consider  a  day's  teaching  in  arith- 
metic. 

The  day  has  fifty  minutes  set  aside  in  which  to  get  all 
the  arithmetic  out  of  the  way.  From  elementary  number 
work  upward  there  are  perhaps  thirty  children  at  all  stages 
of  advancement.  To  hear  recitations  in  the  routine  manner 
eight  different  periods  or  at  least  two  hours  and  twenty  min- 
utes would  be  required.  From  the  nature  of  the  subject, 
practice  by  the  pupil,  in  all  but  the  first  two  years,  is  more 
important  or  at  least  takes  more  time  than  instruction  as 
such.  This  practice  requires  some  oversight  by  the  teacher 
and  an  occasional  blackboard  recitation. 

The  clock  points  to  9.05,  and  the  period  has  begun. 

Five  minutes  are  devoted  to  rapid  directions  to  the  pupils 
who  need  them  as  to  what  work  to  do  today.  Others  know 
what  to  do  and  proceed  without  directions. 

A  group,  or  it  may  be  an  individual,  of  the  older  pupils 
require  some  instruction  as  to  the  principles  of  a  new  pro- 
cess which  they  are  ready  to  begin.  Ten  minutes  will  take 
care  of  this. 

Then  twenty  minutes  are  devoted  to  the  two  classes  of 
beginners  in  number. 

After  that  the  teacher  has  five  minutes  in  which  to  look 
rapidly  over  the  work  of  pupils  at  their  seats  and  ten  min- 
utes for  a  blackboard  recitation  from  some  pupils  who  have 
finished  a  certain  process,  are  ready  for  recitation,  and 
have  been  getting  their  work  on  the  board  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  period. 

The  hour  9.55  has  come,  and  the  whole  school  is  done 
with  arithmetic  for  the  day,  and  at  the  end  of  a  week  inci- 
dentally have  learned  more  arithmetic  than  they  would  have 
by  tediously  working  over  imperfectly  comprehended  pro- 
cesses at  home  and  yielding  up  the  result  by  a  routine  daily 
recitation.  It  would  be  a  great  help  to  have  all  pupils  keep 
their  work  in  neat  notebooks,  which  the  teacher  should  fur- 
tlier  examine  out  of  class  time. 


DAILY  TIME-TABLE. 


19 


Of  course  the  above  is  only  a  suggestion.  As  the  wide- 
awake teacher  gets  the  knack  of  handling  her  work  in  this 
way  she  will  improve  npon  it  from  day  to  day,  and  in  most 
mixed  schools  in  which  there  are  much  less  than  thirty  pupils 
there  will  be  proportionately  more  time  for  individual  work. 

IV.  By  intelligent  classification  much  time  can  be  saved, 
for,  even  were  there  plenty  of  time,  it  is  by  no  means  neces- 
sary that  there  should  be  a  distinct  period  for  every  grade. 
Notably  in  reading. 

It  is  a  rare  school  in  which  more  than  four  classes  in 
reading  are  within  reason.  There  will  always  be  a  class  of 
beginners  who  must  be  handled  by  themselves,  and  usually 
a  class  of  young  children  somewhat  more  advanced,  the  be- 
ginners of  the  last  year  perhaps.  After  that,  two  classes  at 
the  outside  will  cover  the  whole  school. 

It  should  be  observed  that  reading  is  not  a  consecutive 
subject  like  arithmetic  or  grammar.  It  is  not  essential  that 
every  child  should  read  every  book  throughout  as  every  other 
child  does.  As  fast  as  a  pupil  acquires  power  to  read  he  may 
be  allowed  to  read  with  the  next  class.  In  this  way  four 
classes  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  may  frequently  be  re- 
duced to  three  or  even  two  by  the  end. 

V.  By  alternating  yearns  work,  time  may  be  saved  in 
subjects  in  which  there  are  more  than  two  consecutive  years 
in  the  program.  For  instance,  in  geography  it  is  not  of 
critical  importance  whether  a  pupil  studies  North  America 
before  or  after  he  studies  Europe.  Hence,  assuming  that 
there  are  four  grades  in  geography,  V  and  VI  may  be  com- 
bined this  year  on  sixth  year  work,  and  next  year  the  same 
pupils  take  fifth  year  work.  And  so  with  VI  and  VII  or  VII 
and  VIII. 

VI.  By  correlation  of  studies  much  time  in  the  aggregate 
can  be  saved.  The  program  provides  for  this  to  some  extent 
outright,  as,  for  instance,  when  it  reduces  the  amount  of 
time  for  reading  and  composition  in  the  upper  grades.  The 
alert  teacher  will  find  other  opportunities  from  day  to  day. 
For  instance,  when  the  geography  class  comes  to  longitude 
and  time,  the  subject  can  take  the  place  of  arithmetic  for 
the  time  being.  It  is  not  necessary  to  teach  it  in  both  sub- 
jects. 


CHAPTEE  III. 


READING. 

The  main  purpose  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  teaching  reading 
is  the  development  of  the  power  of  thought-getting  from  the 
printed  or  written  page.  The  pupil  must  be  trained  from 
the  very  beginning  to  read  thoughts,  not  merely  to  learn  and 
pronounce  words.  Teachers  are  cautioned  not  to  allow  even 
beginners  to  form  the  habit  of  pronouncing  a  sentence  word 
by  word.  School  boards  are  advised  that  a  class  cannot  prop- 
erly be  said  to  be  making  progress  in  reading,  unless  pupils 
show  by  their  expression  that  they  comprehend  what  they  are 
reading. 

The  reading  of  the  common  school  as  a  whole  may  be  said 
to  show  three  phases: 

First,  it  is  a  matter  of  teaching  the  mechanics  of  reading, 
commonly  called  teaching  to  read.  This  process  should  be 
fully  complete  by  the  end  of  the  third  year. 

Second,  it  is  a  matter  of  training  the  voice  to  clear,  dis- 
tinct, accurate,  pleasing  enunciation.  This  process  should 
begin  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  third  year,  and  the 
teacher  must  be  unceasingly  vigilant  in  its  pursuit  so  long 
as  children  are  in  school, — vigilant  not  only  in  the  period  de- 
voted to  reading,  but  in  those  devoted  to  other  subjects  as 
well. 

Third,  it  is  a  matter  of  leading  the  child  through  the  teach- 
ing of  reading  into  some  acquaintanceship  with  the  world's 
best  literature.  This  process  should  begin  with  the  primer, 
and  not  be  relaxed  so  long  as  the  pupil  remains  in  school. 
Only  reading  of  real  literary  merit  should  be  supplied,  and 
atfer  the  third  year  the  books  used  should  be  for  the  most 
part  complete  pieces,  not  collections  of  selections. 

The  teacher  is  cautioned  that  every  exercise  in  arithmetic, 

20 


READING. 


21 


history,  geography,  physiology,  civics,  composition  and  gram- 
mar is  also  a  recitation  in  reading.  Careless,  slovenly  read- 
ing of  an  example  in  arithmetic  on  any  day  may  more  than 
offset  the  gain  of  the  reading  lesson  for  that  day. 

First  Year. 

I.  (a)  Teach  objectively  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  words 
chosen  from  the  basal  reader  in  nse.  Teach  these  words  from 
the  blackboard  or  chart;  both  may  be  nsed  to  advantage. 
Keep  up  a  constant  review  of  the  words  taught,  (b)  As  fast 
as  the  stock  of  words  becomes  sufficient,  sentences  should  be 
formed  from  them,  written  on  the  board,  and  the  pupils 
taught  to  read  them  as  wholes. 

II.  At  the  end  of  from  three  to  five  months,  the  books 
may  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  children  and  then  the  read- 
ing may  be  more  and  more  from  them.  Always  see  to  it  that 
the  pupil  gets  the  thought  of  what  he  reads.  His  expression 
will  tell  you  whether  he  does  or  not. 

After  the  books  are  in  the  pupils'  hands,  the  new  words  of 
each  lesson  should  be  placed  upon  the  board,  studied  and 
learned,  before  commencing  to  read.  As  soon  as  the  pupils 
begin  to  get  some  mastery  of  the  sounds,  the  children  should 
discover  the  pronunciation  of  all  new  words  for  themselves. 

III.  After  about  five  months'  work, — one  or  two  months 
with  the  books, — begin  to  teach  the  sounds.  Do  not  give  the 
sounds  abstractly.  Have  the  pupils  learn  them  from  words 
which  he  knows — thus,  the  sounds  m  and  at  from  mat;  I  and 
ight  from  light,  and  so  on. 

Avoid  the  use  of  diacritical  marks.  The  pupil  can  gradu- 
ally, during  the  first  two  years,  acquire  the  knack  of  distin- 
guishing the  quantity  of  vowels  and  the  quality  of  consonants 
in  new  words,  by  inspection  of  the  words  in  which  they  occur. 
For  illustration,  note  the  effect  of  silent  e  in  not  and  note, 
mad  and  made,  upon  the  quantity  of  the  preceding  vowel. 

Do  not  undertake  to  complete  the  mastery  of  the  sounds 
during  the  first  year.  It  is  two  years'  work,  and  then  there 
is  a  margin  left  for  review  and  cleaning  up  in  the  third  year. 


22 


EEADING. 


But  drill  "apon  sounds,  while  it  must  not  be  allowed  to  become 
irksome,  should  be  unremitting.  Facility  in  reading  and 
ready  ability  to  appreciate  the  content  of  reading  in  the  third, 
fourth,  and  upper  grades  will  depend  in  a  large  measure 
upon  the  freeing  of  the  pupil's  mind  from  the  mechanics  of 
reading  by  the  sounds  drill  of  the  first  two  years. 

As  fast  as  sounds  become  familiar  to  the  class,  they  should 
be  given  quick  perception  drills  daily  upon  these  sounds. 
Perception  cards  will  be  found  one  of  the  teacher's  most  use- 
ful devices,  but  many  others  will  be  employed  by  the  re- 
sourceful teacher. 

The  teacher  must  familiarize  herself  with  the  principles  of 
phonics  and  so  become  independent  of  all  systems.  The 
capable  teacher  will  invent  the  best  devices  of  teaching. 

KBSULTS  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  FIRST  YEAR. 

Pupils  should  be  able  to  read  readily  at  sight  from  any 
ordinary  first  reader.  This  is  the  real  test  of  attainment, 
not  the  number  of  books  which  the  class  may  have  read.  A 
certain  number  of  books  to  be  read  are  recommended  in 
order  to  give  scope  and  breadth  to  the  reading,  but  the  num- 
ber is  not  to  be  taken  as  a  prescribed  course. 

Before  the  close  of  the  first  year,  see  that  the  children 
know  the  alphabet  regularly  and  in  order. 

SUGGESTED   LIST    OF  .READING   MATERIAL   FOR   FIRST  YEAR. 


Graded  readers."^ 

Child  Life   MacM. 

Heath    Heath 

Baker  &  Carpenter   MacM. 

Art  Literature   R.  M.  &  Co. 

Stepping  Stones  to  Literature  Silver 

Jones   Ginn 


*Classes  will  usually  need  to  read  several  primers  and  several  first  readers 
from  the  graded  list. 


READING.  23 

Supplementary.'^ 

Sunbonnet  Babies  E.  M.  &  Co. 

Overall  Boys  E.  M.  &  Co. 

Wideawake  Primer   L.  B.  &  Co. 

Folklore  Primer  and  1st  Eeader  A.  M.  &  G. 

Hiawatha  Primer   H.  M.  &  Co. 

Fairy  Tale  and  Fable..  A.  B.  C. 

Six  Xursery  Classics  Heath 

So-Fat  and  Mew-Mew  Heath 

Eugene  Field  Eeader  Scribner 

Indian  Primer   A.  B.  C. 

Every  teacher  should  have: 

McMurry's  Special  Method  in  Primary  Eeading  

  MacM. 

HalFs  How  to  Teach  Eeading  Heath 

Arnold's  Eeading:  How  to  Teach  It  Silver 

Laing's  Eeading   Heath 


Second  Yeae. 

I.  From  the  beginning  of  the  year,  review  the  words  and 
sounds  of  the  first  year  by  the  quick  perception  method. 
Gradually  extend  the  sound  drill  to  include  the  more  obscure 
vowels,  the  initials  and  the  terminals. 

II.  Beginning  in  September,  review  rapidly  the  basal 
readers  of  the  first  year  and  one  or  more  of  the  supplemen- 
tary readers. 

III.  By  the  first  of  November  at  the  latest,  pupils  should 
be  reading  from  the  second  reader.  The  basal  readers  of  the 
second  year  may  be  several  of  the  second  readers  named  be- 
low, or  of  like  quality.  Beginning  with  this  year,  it  is  espe- 
cially needful  that  the  pupils  should  have  a  variety  of  read- 
ing. It  is  destructive  of  all  real  progress  to  keep  the  class 
reading  over  and  over  again  the  same  set  of  books.  There- 
fore, in  addition  to  the  basal  readers,  each  class  should  be 
provided  with  from  five  to  ten  sets  of  supplementary  readers. 

*Tobe  read  toward  the  close  of  the  year.  Including  primers  and  first 
readers,  each  class  ought  to  read  at  least  ten  books  from  the  above  list  during 
the  first  year. 


24 


READING. 


Toward  the  end  of  the  year,  give  much  quick  perception 
drill  on  sentences.  Two  courses  may  be  followed.  In  the 
first,  the  pupils  turn  their  backs  on  the  blackboard  while  a 
sentence  is  being  written  thereon.  At  the  word  of  the 
teacher,  they  turn,  glance  at  the  sentence,  turn  back,  and  are 
asked  to  give  the  sentence.  In  the  second,  pupils  are  re- 
quired to  glance  rapidly  over  a  sentence  in  the  reader,  look 
away,  and  give  the  sentence  without  reference  to  the  book. 

IIE:S,TJLTS  AT  THEl  END'  lOF  THE  SECOND  YEAR. 

The  class  should  at  the  end  of  the  second  year  be  able  to 
read  at  sight  readily  from  any  second  reader  of  the  graded 
series  listed  below. 

READING  MATERIA!/  FOR  SECOND  YEAR. 


Graded  readers. 

Child  Life,  II  MacM. 

Stepping  Stones,  II   Silver 

Graded  Literature,  II  Merrill 

Brooks,  II   A.  B.  C. 

Supplementary. 

Hiawatha  Stories  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Around  the  World,  I  Silver 

Eeynard  the  Fox  A.  B.  C. 

Wideawake  L.  B.  &  Co. 

Boy  Blue  and  His  Friends  L.  B.  &  Co. 

Art  Literature    A.  M.  &  G. 

Mother  Goose  Village   .E.  M.  &  Co. 

Fables  and  Folk  Stories  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Heart  of  Oak   Heath 

Eskimo  Stories   R.  M.  &  Co. 


Including  second  readers,  review  first  grade  work,  and 
supplementary  reading,  the  class  ought  to  read  ten  books  dur- 
ing the  year. 

The  teacher  should  own  for  constant  study  the  books  for 
teachers  named  under  the  first  year's  work. 


READING. 


25 


Thied  Year. 

I.  Eeview  and  perfect  sound  drill. 

II.  Eead  in  review  one  second  reader,  beginning  at  open- 
ing of  fall  term. 

III.  Beginning  with  about  the  third  month,  the  class 
should  be  able  to  read  more  and  more  for  cultural  values,  and 
less  and  less  for  the  mechanics  of  reading. 

Material  for  the  third  year  may  be  selected  from  the  list 
here  given.  Six  or  eight,  at  least,  should  be  read  in  class 
during  the  year. 

It  is  advisable  to  dispense  largely  with  graded  readers 
from  the  beginning  of  the  third  year. 

RE'ADIXG  MATERIAL  FOR  THIRD  YEAR. 

Literature. 

Child's  Garden  of  Verses  E.  M.  &  Co. 

Book  of  Nature  Myths  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Eobinson  Crusoe   P.  S.  Pub  Co. 

Gulliver's  Travels  Eetold   A.  B.  C. 

Norse  Tales  E.  M.  &  Co. 

Fifty  Famous  Stories  A.  B.  C. 

Fables  and  Folk  Stories  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Geography. 

Seven  Little  Sisters  Ginn 

Each  and  All  Ginn 

Art  Literature  A.  M.  &  G. 

Around  the  World,  II  Silver 

Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands  

  A.  B.  C. 

Nature. 

Merry  Animal  Tales  L.  B.  &  Co. 

History. 

Stories  of  the  Eed  Children  Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

Great  Americans  for  Little  Americans.  . .  .  A.  B.  C. 


The  list  of  reading  material  given  includes  geographical, 
nature,  and  history  readers.    In  distributing  the  year's  as- 


26 


READING. 


signment,  at  least  three  books  should  be  read  having  the  lit- 
erature basis;  after  that,  history,  geography,  and  nature  read- 
ers may  be  used.  The  order  of  importance  is  indicated  by 
the  order  of  the  words  in  the  last  sentence. 

The  teacher  may  also  profitably  use  material  selected  by 
herself,  clipped  from  periodicals  like  Youth's  Companion  and 
St.  Nicholas,  pasted  on  cardboard  and  passed  around  the  class 
for  reading. 

The  teacher  should  have  for  constant  study  one  or  more  of 
the  works  on  primary  reading  mentioned  in  the  work  of  the 
first  year. 

Silent  Reading. 

One  of  the  teachers'  best  opportunities  first  presents  itself 
in  this  year  through  silent  reading.  Bring  in,  and  encourage 
the  children  to  bring  in,  good  books  and  newspapers  and 
magazines  from  home.  If  there  is  a  public  library  in  town 
do  not  fail  to  utilize  it  to  the  utmost  for  the  reinforcement 
of  the  school.  Take  out  a  school  card  and  keep  in  the  school- 
room a  constant  supply  of  good  children's  books.  Keep  all 
this  material  where  it  can  be  served  out  to  children  for  silent 
reading  at  times  when  they  would  otherwise  be  idle. 

Occasionally  allow  two  or  three  pupils  to  read  to  the  class 
for  a  whole  period  out  of  a  selection  from  this  silent  reading 
material. 

RBSrULTS  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  THIRD  YEAR. 

Pupils  should  be  able  to  read  fluently  practically  any  se- 
lection given  them,  suited  to  their  age  in  thought. 

Fourth  Year. 

This  year  is  usually  a  transition  period  between:  the  pri- 
mary and  grammar  schools.  The  reading  will  be  much  the 
same  in  purpose  and  method  as  that  of  the  third  year. 


READING. 


2T 


READING  ]\IATERIAL  FOR  FOURTH  YEAR. 

Literature. 

Alice  in  Wonderland  MacM. 

Little  Lame  Prince  ....Heath 

Heart  of  Oak  Heath 

Andersen's  Fairy  Tales  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Fifty  Famous  Stories  Eetold  A.  B.  C. 

Thirty  More  Famous  Stories  A.  B.  C. 

Art  Literature  A.  M.  &  G. 

Gulliver's  Travels  Eetold  A.  B.  C. 

The  Niirnburg  Stove  Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

History. 

Colonial  Children   Heath 

Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure.  .A.  B.  C. 

America's  Story   Heath 

Four  Great  Americans  A.  B.  C. 

Geography. 

Seven  Little  Sisters  Ginn 

Around  the  World,  III  Silver 

Colonial  Life  in  New  Hampshire  Ginn 

Cut-up  selections,  as  in  third  year. 

Nature,  history,  and  geographical  reading,  as  in  third  year. 
Silent  reading,  as  in  third  year. 

Scliool  Library. 

It  is  not  expected  that  any  class  can  read  all  the  books  sug- 
gested under  the  third,  fourth,  and  following  years,  nor  could 
most  boards  afford  to  buy  more  than  a  few  sets.  But  almost 
any  board  can  afford  to  buy  for  the  schoolroom,  a  complete 
list  of  single  copies  of  the  books  named  in  the  lists  for  years 
III  to  VIII,  inclusive. 

Fifth  Year. 

Teach  the  use  of  the  dictionary  and  hereafter  require  all 
but  very  unusual  words  to  be  looked  up  by  the  class  for  pro- 
nunciation and  definition.    This  worh  should  not  he  left  to  the 


28 


'  HEADING. 


pupils  in  this  year  nor  the  next.  The  teacher  should  make  a 
list  of  all  unfamiliar  words,  which  she  desires  the  class  to  look 
up,  in  the  next  assignment,  and  place  the  same  on  the  board. 
The  class  may  be  required  to  note  the  pronunciation,  with 
proper  diacritical  marking,  upon  slips  of  paper  and  bring  the 
same  into  class  on  the  following  day  for  pronunciation  and 
definition. 

Never  assign  a  word  for  looking  up  without  first  finding  out 
whether  or  not  the  pupils  already  know  it,  either  all  of  them 
or  some  of  them. 

Never  accept  a  dictionary  definition  without  requiring  the 
pupil  to  give  another  in  his  own  terms. 

Frequently  vary  the  looking-up  of  the  pronunciation  of 
new  words  with  an  exercise  in  the  diacritical  marking  of 
familiar  words. 

Continue  silent  reading  as  in  the  two  preceding  years.  In 
this  year  the  teacher  may  begin  to  discuss  with  children 
books  read  out  of  class.  The  chief  aim  of  reading  now  is  to 
develop  in  children  a  love  for  the  best  and  the  habit  of  read- 
ing at  home  and  in  the  library. 

Accumulate  a  school  library.  (See  remarks  under  fourth 
year.) 

Read  not  less  than  five  of  the  following  list  of 

BEADING  MATERIAL  FOR  FIFTH  YEAE. 

Literature. 

Wonder  Book  .  H.  M.  &  Co. 

King  of  the  Golden  River  Ginn 

Hiawatha   ....H.  M.  &  Co. 

Water  Babies   Ginn 

Arabian  Nights  Ed.  Pub.  Co.;  A.  B.  C. 

Swiss  Family  Robinson  Univ.  Pub.  Co. 

Robinson  Crusoe  MacM. 

Heidi   Ginn 

History. 

Ten  Boys  on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago  Ginn 

Story  of  the  Greeks  A.  B.  C. 

Story  of  the  Romans  A.  B.  C. 


READING. 


29 


Humane. 


Black  Beauty  .  .  .  . , 
A  Dog  of  Flanders. 


Ed.  Pub.  Co. 


Nature. 


The  Jungle  Book  .  . . 
Lobo,  Eag,  and  Vixen 
Secrets  of  the  Woods. 


. Century 
Scribners 
.  . .  .  Ginn 


Hygiene. 


Emergencies 


Ginn 


Sixth  Ykak. 


Continue  dictionary  work  as  in  the  fifth  year. 

It  is  usually  profitable  in  this  year,  in  graded  schools,  to 
begin  to  read  intensively  some  suitable  piece  of  literature. 
For  this  purpose  Longfellow's  Hiawatha  is  recommended. 
The  work  should  include,  beside  the  reading,  many  composi- 
tions,— narrative,  descriptive,  imitative, — based  on  the  litera- 
ture. The  poem  should  be  illustrated  and  interpreted  by 
the  children  through  their  drawing  and  by  simple  dramatics. 
(See  history  outline.)  A  whole  term,  if  needed,  is  not  too 
long  a  time  to  spend  in  this  way,  and  such  work  would  take 
the  place  of  the  rapid  reading  of  several  other  books.  Of 
course,  other  books  might  be  read  at  the  same  time,  alternat- 
ing with  the  intensive  reading. 


Accumulate  a  school  library.  (See  remarks  under  fourth 
year.) 


The  Great  Stone  Face  H.  M.  &  Co. 


READmG  MATERIAL  FOR  SIXTH  YEAR. 


Literature. 

Hiawatha  

Tanglewood  Tales 


.H.  M.  &  Co. 
H.  M.  &  Co. 


Story  of  a  Short  Life  L.  B.  &  Co. 


History  and  Citizenship. 


Beginners^  American  History  Ginn 

Story  of  Our  Country  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Abraham  Lincoln   A.  B.  C. 


30 


READING. 


Stories  of  the  English  A.  B.  C. 

Lessons  for  Junior  Citizens  Ginn 

Old  Testament  Stories  Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

Geography. 

Carpenter's  North  America  A.  B.  C. 

Carpenter's  Industrial  Readers  A.  B.  C. 


Hygiene. 

Good  Health   Ginn 

Nature. 

Ways  of  Wood  Folk  Ginn 

First  Book  of  Birds  H.  M.  &  Co. 


Squirrels  and  Other  Fur  Bearers  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Se'-venth  and  Eighth  Years. 

Use  of  the  dictionar}^  may  now  be  left  somewhat  more  to 
the  pupil,  but  the  teacher  is  cautioned  not  to  yield  to  the 
temptation  to  neglect  this  important  part  of  the  work. 

The  reading  of  these  two  years  is  more  than  ever  centered 
on  literary  values.  The  historical  and  geographical  reading 
is  now  provided  for  in  the  periods  devoted  to  those  subjects. 
The  reading  does  not  differ  materially  in  its  aim  from  that 
of  the  high  school.  The  teacher  is  especially  reminded  that 
the  class  is  reading  to  develop  (a)  a  love  for  literature,  (b) 
some  acquaintanceship  with  the  best  literature,  (c)  some 
power  of  discrimination  in  the  choice  of  literature.  There- 
fore do  not  let  the  work  degenerate  into  mere  grammatical 
and  etymological  dissection. 

See  remarks  on  intensive  reading  under  sixth  year. 

Accumulate  a  school  library.  (See  remarks  under  fourth 
year.) 

READING  MATERIAL  FOR  SElVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  YE^VRS. 


Litei'ature. 

The  Man  Without  a  Country  L.  B.  &  Co. 

Tom  Brown's  School  Days  Ginn 


KEADING. 


Evangeline   H.  M.  &  Co. 

Miles  Standish  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Snow  Bound  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Tales  from  Shakespeare  Ginn 

Merchant  of  A^enice  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Sketch-Book    Ginn 

Vision  of  Sir  Lannfal  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Lady  of  the  Lake   Ginn 

Christmas  Carol   Ginn 

Tales  of  the  White  Hills  H.  M,  &  Co. 

Citizenship. 

The  Young  Citizen  Heath 

Hygiene. 

The  Body  at  Work  Ginn 

Nature. 

The  School  of  the  Woods  Ginn 

Birds  and  Bees  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Sharp  Eyes  .  .  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Geography. 

Carpenter's  Geography  Headers  A.  B.  C. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


HANDWRITING. 

First  Yeah — First  Part. 

Practice  in  writing  should  begin  at  the  outset.  All  writ- 
ing during  the  first  term  should  be  done  at  the  blackboard 
and  under  the  immediate  oversight  of  the  teacher.  Pupils 
should  not  be  allowed  to  use  pencils  during  this  term. 

Arrange  the  class  at  the  blackboard,  compactly  enough  to 
permit  the  teacher  to  oversee  all  at  once,  but  not  so  closely 
as  to  interfere  with  one  another's  freedom  of  movement.  It 
is  better  that  not  more  than  ten  write  at  once.  Teach  pu- 
pils how  to  hold  chalk, — not  like  a  pen,  but  between  the 
thumb  and  fingers,  the  greater  part  of  the  chalk  being  inside 
the  hand. 

Begin  with  the  copying  of  single  words.  AVrite  the  word 
which  the  pupils  are  to  copy  at  the  place  where  each  is  to 
stand,  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  children's  eyes.  Make 
the  letters  very  round  and  as  simple  in  form  as  possible.  At 
the  time  of  the  exercise,  first  show  the  pupils  how  to  write 
the  word,  and  then  require  them  to  write  it  below  the  copy 
already  written.  Pass  quickly  from  one  to  another,  critcis- 
ing,  commending,  and  helping.  Give  but  one  direction  for 
improvement  at  a  time,  and  have  the  pupil  carry  that  out 
before  taking  up  any  other  point.  Always  erase  the  faulty 
exercise  before  it  is  rewritten,  so  that  the  pupil  may  always 
copy  the  correct  form,  and  not  his  own  faulty  work.  Make 
the  exercise  short,  and  require  as  much  concentration  of  ef- 
fort as  possible. 

After  four  to  six  weeks  of  these  exercises,  close  each  exer- 
cise by  erasing  the  copy  word  after  the  pupils  have  written 
it  several  times,  and  let  them  try  to  write  it  from  memory; 
and  thereafter,  close  each  exercise  with  this  memory  test. 

32 


HANDWRITING. 


33 


After  a  few  weeks^  introduce  short  sentences  on  tlie  slips. 
Not  more  than  one  new  word  should  appear  in  a  copy.  Teach 
the  use  of  capitals:  first  word  in  a  sentence,  names  of  persons 
and  places,  capital  I. 

First  Yeiar — .Second  Part. 

About  the  twelfth  week,  introduce  writing  at  the  seats. 
Never  during  the  first  year  should  the  teacher  leave  pupils  to 
accomplish  the  writing  lesson  by  themselves.  Do  not  require 
pupils  to  copy  from  the  Nackhoard.  Copying  from  the  board, 
especially  in  the  case  of  young  children,  requires  a  rapid 
change  of  focus,  which  is  extremely  harmful  to  the  eyes. 

Write  each  exercise  on  slips  of  paper,  in  round  letters  of 
good  size.  Use  black  ink.  Make  as  many  slips  as  there  are 
pupils.  Give  each  pupil  a  slip  and  sheet  of  paper.  The 
pupils  should  use  black  pencils  of  large  diameter  and  soft 
enough  to  make  a  black  line  without  much  pressure.  The 
copy  slip  should  be  placed  above  the  top  of  the  paper  and 
the  word  copied  below.  Then  the  pupils  should  place  the 
copy  slip  over  the  word  they  have  written,  so  as  to  cover  it, 
and  write  the  word  again,  and  so  on. 

Continue  the  use  of  the  copy  slips  throughout  the  year. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  year,  teach  the  pupils  from  copy 
slips  to  write  their  own  names.  Teachers  should  be  careful 
to  use  themselves  the  same  style  of  writing  which  they  teach 
their  pupils. 

Second  Year. 

The  writing  should  be  continued  from  copy  slips,  as  in  the 
first  year.  Eeview  the  writing  of  pupils'  own  names  and 
thereafter  require  the  pupils'  names  to  be  written  on  all  writ- 
ten exercises. 

At  the  close  of  every  writing  exercise,  remove  the  copy 
and  require  the  pupils  to  write  the  same  from  dictation. 

Give  frequent  drills  in  writing  over  amd  over  short  words 
like  and,  the,  etc.,  which  occur  very  often.  This  is  as  im- 
portant as  the  sound  drills  in  reading. 


34 


HANDWRITING. 


Note  particularly  that  handwriting  and  composition  or  ele- 
mentary language  may  frequently  be  combined  to  advantage. 


Continue  practice  in  writing  from  copy  and  dictation. 
The  copies  should  consist  of  entire  sentences.  Teach  the 
pupils  never  to  look  from  paper  to  copy  in  the  middle  of  an 
effort,  but  to  study  the  copy  until  they  can  shut  their  eyes 
and  see  it;  and  then  strike  it  off  with  a  single  effort,  after- 
ward comparing  the  result  with  the  copy,  and  trying  to  do 
better  next  time. 

Give  daily  practice  in  writing  over  and  over  the  short 
words  frequently  used. 

Insist  on  the  pupil's  best  effort  in  every  written  exercise  of 
whatever  Jcind.  In  a  great  majority  of  cases,  teachers  allow 
all  they  build  up  in  the  writing  or  composition  or  spelling 
exercise  to  he  torn  down  in  some  other. 


The  constructive  work  of  these  years  should  be  movement 
exercises.  The  problem  is  to  cultivate  muscular  coordina- 
tion until  a  good  hand  is  written  subconsciously.    See  the 


Rational  copy  books  A.  B.  C. 

Practical  copy  books  A.  B.  C. 

and  especially 

Modern  Business  Penmanship  A.  B.  C. 

The  conservative  work  will  be  that  referred  to  under  third 
and  fourth  years,  namely,  insistence  upon  the  best  the  pupil 
is  capable  of  in  every  written  exercise.  A  composition  or 
examination  paper  is  an  exercise  in  penmanship  only  when 
the  pupil  is  trying  to  make  his  handwriting  the  best  possible. 

Regular  writing  exercises  beyond  the  sixth  year  are  deemed 
to  be  unnecessary  if  the  work  of  the  first  six  years  has  been 
well  done.  If  it  is  felt  desirable  to  carry  the  work  further 
the  outline  for  years  V  and  VI  will  serve. 


Thied  and  Fourth  Yeaes. 


Fifth  and  Sixth  Years. 


Morse  copy  books. 
Medial  copy  books 


Silver 
.  Ginn 


HANDWKITING. 


35 


^^ote  particularly  that  it  is  no  part  of  the  business  of  the 
elementary  school  to  produce  elegant  penmen.  That  belongs 
to  technical  training.  The  school  fails^  however,  in  so  far 
as  it  fails  to  turn  out  pupils  who  can  write  a  legible  hanri 
with  a  reasonable  degree  of  speed. 


CHAPTEE  V. 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

Intboductoey. 

Under  the  above  heading,  only  the  language  of  the  first 
two  years  and  the  composition  of  the  last  six  years  will  be 
treated.  Eeading,  in  the  main,  spelling,  handwriting,  and 
grammar  are  outlined  in  other  portions  of  the  Program  of 
Studies.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  all  these  are, 
properly  speaking,  language  study,  and  that  every  other  sub- 
ject in  the  program  is  closely  related  to  language  study. 

I.    iMPKESsioiisrAL  Language. 

In  this  one  of  the  two  great  branches  of  language  training, 
the  mind  is  primarily  receptive,  and  the  course  of  mental 
activity  tends  from  without  inward.  It  is  a  vitally  important 
side  of  the  work,  equally  important  with  the  expressional  or 
composition  side.  Much  of  it  is  incidental,  but  the  teacher 
cannot  be  successful  unless  she  is  willing  to  make  it  also  sys- 
tematic. At  least  three  fourths  of  every  well-taught  lesson 
furnishes  the  time  and  topic  and  content  for  an  impressional 
language  lesson.  All  the  reading  is  impressional  language 
teaching.  The  teacher  must  also  provide,  especially  in  the 
lower  grades,  sufficient  specific  work  along  this  line,  espe- 
cially in 

Bar-Reading. 

It  is  as  important  that  pupils  should  be  taught  to  be  good 
listeners,  or  ear-readers,  as  it  is  that  they  should  learn  to  grasp 
thought  fully  and  accurately  from  the  printed  page.  The 
good  primary  teacher  must  be  a  good  story-teller,  either  nat- 
urally or  by  cultivation.    She  must  train  her  pupils  in  listen- 

36 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


37 


ing  to,  and  following,  a  selection  read,  a  story  told,  or  a  topic 
briefly  and  cogently  presented.  The  subjects  employed  for 
the  purpose  will  naturally  be  varied  in  content,  including 
topics  from  art,  literature,  current  events,  history,  nature, 
geography,  etc.  When  the  topic  is  drawn  from  one  of  the 
first  three,  it  will  be  given  its  own  time  in  the  language 
period.  The  regular  recitation  in  history,  geography,  etc., 
furnishes  the  time  and  topic  and  content  for  an  impressional 
language  exercise,  but  the  teacher  must  remember  that  sho 
is  teaching  language  as  well  as  the  other  subject.  (See  The 
Teaching  of  Any  Topic.) 

In  story-telling  and  oral  presentation,  the  teacher  should 
give  especial  care  to  the  quality  of  her  own  English,  as  that 
will,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  be  copied  by  her  pupils. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

During  this  year  all  stories,  whenever  practicable,  should  be 
illustrated  by  crayon  sketches  on  the  blackboard.  The  stories 
should  be  short,  simple  in  structure,  full  of  action,  and  of 
such  a  nature  that  their  essential  outlines  will  cling  in  the 
mind  strongly  enough  to  enable  the  child  to  reproduce  them 
easily.  Each  exercise  should  consist  of  a  complete,  but  brief 
story.  For  poetical  selections,  Stevenson's  Child's  Garden 
of  Verse  will  serve  as  a  type  of  the  poems  that  are  likely  to 
appeal  to  children  of  this  age.  Good  material  may  also  be 
found  in  The  Land  of  Song,  Book  I,  published  by  Silver, 
Burdett  &  Co.  The  poems  should  be  recited  by  the  teacher 
to  the  pupils.  The  teacher  should  notice  what  poems  appeal 
to  them  most  and  repeat  these  frequently.  The  children 
may  learn  these  poems  as  memory  gems.  The  pupils  must 
never  be  required  to  learn  a  poem  as  a  task. 

When  the  story  has  been  told,  the  exercise  becomes  one  in 
expressional  language  or  composition.  The  pupils  reproduce 
the  story  in  their  own  language,  being  led  to  use  intelli- 
gently, so  far  as  possible,  whatever  new  words  they  have 
heard.  During  the  first  year  the  reproduction  will  be  en- 
tirely oral. 


38 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


SECOND  YEAK. 

During  this  year,  the  teacher  will  continue  the  story-tell- 
ing of  the  first  year,  and  will  also  begin  the  reading  of  stories 
to  the  class.  Continue  the  reciting  and  learning  of  poems. 
In  telling  or  reading  stories,  use  a  complete  story  for  each 
exercise,  as  in  the  first  year. 

Test  the  pupils  at  the  end  of  each  selection,  remembering 
that  this  part  is  both  a  means  of  discovering  whether  the 
pupils  have  correctly  understood  the  selection,  and  also  an 
exercise  in  expressional  language. 

The  following  list  of  books  will  be  found  to  contain  mate- 
rial of  value  to  the  teacher  for  the  first  and  second  years: 

How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children,  Bryant.  . . ,  

 H.  M.  &  Co. 

In  the  Child's  World,  Poulsson  .Milton  Bradley  Co. 

Eainy  Days  and  Sunny  Days,  Patch  

 Milton  Bradley  Co. 

Half  a  Hundred  Stories  for  Little  People  

 Milton  Bradley  Co. 

In  Story  Land,  Harrison   Sigma  Pub.  Co. 

Boston  Collection  of  Kindergarten  Stories  

 J.  L.  Hammett  Co. 

The  Story  Hour,  Wiggin  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Kindergarten  Stories  and  Morning  Talks,  Wiltse .  . 

  Ginn 

Book  of  Nature  Myths,  Holbrook  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Myths  and  Myth  Makers,  Fiske  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Classic  Stories  for  Little  Ones,  McMurry  

 Public  School  Pub.  Co.,  Bloomington,  111. 

THIRD  AND  FOURTn  YEARS. 

During  these  years  the  impressional  language  work  will  be 
centered  chiefly  around  (a)  the  regular  reading,  and  (b) 
stories  read  by  the  teacher.  The  expressional  side  will  take 
the  form  mainly  of  written  reproduction.  The  pupils  should 
bo  able  to  carry  in  mind  a  longer  story,  and  in  the  reproduc- 
tion manage  several  connected  incidents. 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


39 


FIFTH  TO  EIGHTH  YEARS,  IXCLUSIYE. 

During  these  years,  the  regular  schoolroom  work  furnishes 
abundant  material  and  exercise  on  the  impressional  side  of 
language  study.  The  only  direction  given  the  teacher  is, 
that  any  lesson  well  taught  is  a  good  lesson  in  impressional 
language. 

Continue  throughout  the  learning  of  memory  gems.  If 
desired,  in  the  last  two  years,  this  work  may  become  the 
learning  and  reciting  of  short  pieces  of  literature  or  extracts 
thereof  as  declamations. 

(II.     EXPRESSIONAL  LANGUAGE  OR  COMPOSITION. 

As  the  impressional  language  study  is  both  by  eye  and  by 
ear,  so  the  expressional  is  both  oral  and  written. 

The  oral  composition  is  found  in  the  oral  reproduction  of 
the  first  four  3^ears,  in  the  nature  study  of  the  same  period, 
in  the  arithmetic  of  years  III  to  YIII,  in  the  geography,  his- 
tor}^  civics,  physiology,  and  grammar  of  years  V  to  A^III. 
The  teacher  is  cautioned  that  to  neglect  the  oral  recitation  is 
to  neglect  one  of  the  best  opportunities  for  training  in  the 
use  of  the  mother  tongue,  and  that  to  allow  slovenly  recita- 
tions is  to  destroy  in  each  of  several  daily  exercises  ivhatever 
gain  has  heen  made  in  the  language  exercise. 

AYritten  composition  is  found  in  not  only  the  regular  lan- 
guage work,  but  also  in  every  written  paper,  examination, 
etc.,  submitted  by  pupil  to  teacher. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

Oral  reproduction. 

See  directions  on  Impressional  Language. 

The  first  requisite  for  language  is  thought  to  be  expressed. 
The  ideas  which  are  to  serve  as  material  for  composition 
should  be  those  furnished  by  the  lessons  in  reading,  in  hear- 
ing stories  told  by  the  teacher,  in  the  study  of  pictures  and 
of  nature.  The  teacher  should  so  develop  each  of  these  les- 
sons as  to  arouse  thought  actively  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils. 
This  may  be  done  by  relating  the  objects  studied  to  the  chil- 


40 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


clren's  past  experiences  and  observations  and  present  inter- 
ests, and  by  arousing  their  curiosity  regarding  the  progress 
of  the  story  told  or  read.  The  teacher  will  aim  to  secure 
from  them: 

(a)  Speech  sufficiently  audible  to  be  heard  readily  by  all 
in  the  class. 

(b)  Correct  pronunciation  of  all  words.  Correct  the  pupil's 
mispronunciation  of  words,  requiring  him  to  repeat  the  words 
correctly. 

(c)  Correct  framing  of  sentences.  Correct  awkward  or 
ungrammatical  forms  by  giving  the  right  form,  requiring 
pupils  to  repeat  it.  Let  the  teacher  repeat  only  the  correct 
form  and  let  pupils  repeat. 

Dramatization  of  stories  by  the  children  will  be  found  one 
of  the  most  useful  means,  not  only  of  oral  composition  but 
also  of  general  child  development.  The  teacher  who  has 
never  tried  this  form  of  training  will  do  well  to  visit  some 
school  where  it  is  done,  and  will  find  it  less  difficult  than 
might  naturally  be  expected.  It  appeals  to  powerful  child- 
ish instincts. 

SECOND  YE'uiE. 

Oral  reproduction. 

See  directions  under  first  year  and  under  Impressional 
Language. 

Dramatization. 
See  first  year. 

Copy  a?id  dictation. 

These  are  important  methods  of  language  training  in  the 
early  years.  The  copying  can  usually  be  done  as  seat,  or 
busy,  work;  the  dictation  for  a  few  minutes  on  reading  time. 

Wri  tten  re  pro  du  ction. 

Begin  about  the  middle  of  the  fall  term,  soon  after  the 
copying  of  sentences  is  begun.    (See  Handwriting.) 

During  this  year  the  written  reproduction  of  stories  pre- 
viously reproduced  orally,  must  be  guided  by  the  teacher.  A 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


41 


good  way  will  be  to  place  upon  the  board  a  few  questions,  the 
answers  to  which  will  be  the  main  points  of  the  reproduced 
tale. 

Lunguage  forms. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  year,  the  pupil  should  be  able  to 
handle  readily:  (a)  capitals, — at  the  beginning  of  sentence, 
in  proper  names,  and  in  first  personal  pronoun;  (b)  the  period 
and  the  question  mark  at  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

Caution. — Do  not  rest  content  with  the  telief  that  the 
majority  of  the  class  are  competent  in  this  direction.  Test 
your  class,  instruct,  and  test  again,  until  you  hnoiu  that  they 
are  competent. 

Illustration. 

The  written  reproduction  of  this  year  may  often  be  illus- 
trated by  paper  cutting,  drawing,  etc.  Consult  the  drawing 
teacher. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Do  not  attempt  paragraphing  until  fifth  year.  Make  each 
sentence  a  paragraph. 

Oral  reproduction. 

As  before,  but  more  attention  to  connected  presentation  by 
pupil. 

Written  reproduction. 

Continue  w^ork  of  second  year.  In  place  of  the  leading 
question  outline  of  the  second  year,  begin,  by  the  middle  of 
the  first  term,  to  place  the  outline  of  the  story  upon  the 
board  in  suggestive  words  and  phrases  and  require  the  pupils 
to  write  from  this  outline. 

Original  writing. 

By  the  middle  of  the  year,  some  original  work  may  be  be- 
gun. The  choice  of  subject  is  the  most  important  matter. 
Be  sure  of  two  points:  (1)  that  the  subject  chosen  is  one 
upon  which  each  pupil  has  something  to  tell;  (2)  that  it  is 
one  in  which  each  pupil  has  an  interest.  The  daily  lives  of 
the  pupils  and  the  common  experiences  of  the  school  will 


42 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


furnish  an  abundance  of  subjects.  Picture  stories,  in  which, 
subjects  are  suggested  by  penny  pictures  passed  about  the 
class,  furnish  some  of  the  best  materiaL 

The  subject  chosen  should  be  thoroughly  talked  up  with 
the  class  and  a  board  outline  worked  up  before  the  pupils  be- 
gin to  write.  This  work,  to  be  of  much  value,  must  be  done 
in  the  schoolroom  and  in  class  time.  It  cannot  be  done  as 
a  home  assignment. 

Memory  ivritincj. 

Have  the  class  write  from  memory  single  stanzas  of  mem- 
ory gems.  This  is  as  valuable  from  the  cultural  standpoint 
as  from  that  of  language  training,  but  it  is  also  one  of  the 
most  valuable  language  exercises  in  the  upper  primary  and 
lower  grammar. 

Illustration. 

See  second  year  directions. 

Copy  and  dictation. 

See  second  year  directions. 

Instruction. 

Improvement  in  good  use,  in  the  selection  of  the  best 
words,  in  the  right  management  of  phrases,  paragraphs,  etc., 
is  a  matter  of  growth  and  no  specific  directions  can  be  given. 
At  the  best  the  class  will  not  surpass  its  teacher  in  its  com- 
mand of  language.  Instruction  will  be  based  largely  on  the 
written  work  of  pupils. 

Allow  no  paper  to  pass  uncorrected.  If  the  teacher  is  un- 
able to  correct  a  large  number  of  papers,  then  she  should  pro- 
vide for  only  as  many  as  she  can  properly  correct. 

After  a  written  exercise,  collect  papers,  mark  all  errors 
which  the  children  can  and  should  correct,  and  note  errors 
which  call  for  instruction.  In  marking  corrections,  note  that 
there  is  an  error,  but  do  not  indicate  what  it  is.  r)efore  the 
next  exercise,  the  pupils  should  rewrite  papers,  making  cor- 
rections, and  ]iand  in  tlieir  ]ia]iers. 

Using  the  errors  commonly  made  l)y  the  class  as  a  basis, 
the  teacher  will  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  exercise  give  a 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


43 


few  minutes'  rapid  drill  and  explanation  upon  the  correct 
forms. 

In  teaching  the  new  language  forms,  use  of  capitals,  punc- 
tuation marks,  etc.,  a  period  should  he  set  apart  for  black- 
board instruction  and  illustration  by  the  teacher  and  drill  by 
the  class,  using  typical  sentences. 

Language  forms. 

At  the  end  of  the  third  year,  the  pupils  should  be  familiar 
with  the  use  of:  capital  at  beginning  of  sentences,  in  names 
of  persons  and  places,  in  the  first  personal  pronoun,  and  in 
nouns  of  address;  period  and  question  mark  at  the  end  of 
sentences;  apostrophe  in  possessives  and  common  contrac- 
tions; comma  when  and  or  or  is  omitted.  Also  with  writing 
of  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Dr.,  Rev.,  and  8t.;  the  names  of  days  and 
months,  and  dates;  and  the  correct  use  of  am,  is,  and  are, 
ivas  and  were,  lias  and  liave.  Eequire  pupils  to  indent  the 
first  line  and  to  write  their  names,  school,  and  the  date  on 
each  sheet. 

Caution. — Do  not  rest  content  with  the  helief  that  the 
majority  of  the  class  are  competent  in  their  use  of  the  above 
forms.  Test,  instruct,  and  test  again,  until  you  knoiv  that 
they  are  competent. 

FOURTH  YEAR. 

Do  not  teach  the  paragraph  until  the  fifth  year.  Each  sen- 
tence should  be  in  paragraph  form. 

Oral  reproduction. 

During  this  year  more  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
serial  reading  of  connected  stories  of  some  length.  At  the 
beginning  of  each  exercise,  the  pupil  should  be  questioned 
upon  the  substance  of  the  last  preceding  reading. 

IPse  reading  time. 

Written  reproduction. 

See  directions  under  third  year. 

Themes. 

See  directions  under  third  year,  especially  concerning 
choice  of  subject.    Some  attention  should  be  given  this  year 


44 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


to  description,  using  familiar  landmarks  and  portraits  as  sub- 
jects. The  teacher  will  note  that  an  important -opportunity 
for  training  in  observation  is  here  opened. 

Letter-writing. 

Teach  the  conventional  form  of  a  letter,  the  writing  of 
addresses,  and  the  arrangement  of  envelope.  The  pupils 
should  make  practical  use  of  this  instruction  at  once  by  writ- 
ing to  friends,  classmates,  teacher,  etc. 

Memory  writing. 

See  directions  under  third  year. 

Copy  and  dictation. 
See  directions  under  second  year. 

Illustration. 

See  directions  under  second  year,  but  note  that  the  pupils' 
reach  and  power  in  this  direction  should  be  widening  and 
strengthening. 

Instruction. 

See  directions  under  third  year. 

Language  forms. 

At  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  the  pupil  should  be  familiar 
with  the  correct  use  of: 

Language  forms  of  preceding  years;  comma  with  apposi- 
tives;  quotations  and  quotation  marks;  the  words  a,  an,  the, 
this,  that,  these,  'those,  tvho,  which,  what,  they,  and  them;  the 
plural  forms  of  verbs  and  agreement  of  noun  and, verb;  plural 
nouns  in  s,  es,  and  plurals  formed  from  singular  in  y. 

Do  not  attempt  to  teach  the  grammatical  principles  under- 
lying any  of  the  above.  Teach  objectively,  by  concrete  il- 
lustrations, and  by  requiring  pupils  using  incorrect  forms  to 
repeat,  using  correct  forms. 

Caution. — Teach,  test,  and  teach  these  forms  until  you 
Icnow  that  your  class  is  competent  in  them. 

FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  YEABS. 

The  reproduction  exercises  of  the  primary  school  are  now 
more  and  more  provided  for  by  the  oral  and  written  work  in 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


45 


geography,  history,  physiology,  etc.  But  the  teacher  is  cau- 
tioned that  every  such  exercise,  whether  she  will  or  no,  is  an 
exercise  in  English,  either  impressional  or  expressional  and 
usually  both.  Whether  such  exercise  contributes  to  the 
building  up  or  tearing  down  of  the  work  in  English  will 
depend  on  the  teacher's  diligence,  and  vigilance  in  making 
the  exercise  one  in  the  use  of  good  English. 

Paragrapliing. 

Hitherto,  each  sentence  has  formed  a  paragraph.  The 
teacher  will,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  year,  teach  the 
pupils  to  gather  all  the  sentences  relating  to  the  same  topic 
into  one  paragraph.  The  board  outline  should  indicate  the 
paragraph  divisions. 

Written  reproduction. 

Chiefly  abstracts  of  portions  of  literature  read.  The  ca- 
pable teacher  will  make  this  work  very  profitable  through  its 
correlations  with  drawing.  (See  Illustration  under  third 
year.) 

Til  ernes. 

The  subjects  of  themes  will  still  be  largely  experience  nar- 
ratives and  descriptions  of  familiar  objects  and  scenes. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  outline  from  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  year  the  pupils  should  be  taught  to  depend  upon 
themselves  more  and  more.  The  following  devices  are  sug- 
gested: 

(a)  Select  a  pupil,  for  each  new  subject,  to  prepare  an  out- 
line and  submit  the  same  to  the  teacher  for  criticism  and 
correction.  This  may  afterward  be  placed  upon  the  board 
for  the  use  of  the  class. 

(b)  Eequire  each  to  prepare  his  own  outline,  and  submit 
the  same  to  the  teacher  for  discussion  and  correction  before 
writing. 

Letter-writing. 

Teach  pupils  to  plan  a  letter,  first  deciding  what  they  wish 
to  tell,  and  noting  their  subjects  on  a  bit  of  paper.  Teach 
them  to  write  to  the  point,  to  say  what  they  have  to  say  and 


46 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


then  stop.    The  special  forms  of  letter  to  be  studied  will  be: 

(a)  Invitations  and  responses. 

(b)  A  letter  renewing  or  terminating  subscription  to  peri- 
odical. 

(c)  A  letter  applying  for  a  position. 

(d)  Business  forms  to  correlate  with  arithmetic  of  sixth 
year. 

Letter-writing  should  be  given  a  practical  basis  by  having 
pupils  correspond  with  pupils  of  similar  grade  in  other  places. 
This  may  be  made  especially  valuable  in  connection  with 
geography.  Such  letters  will  usually  elicit  a  ready  response 
from  any  part  of  the  English-speaking  world. 

Memorij  ivriting. 

Continue  as  a  daily  exercise  throughout  the  fifth  and  sixth 
years.    (See  directions  under  preceding  years.) 

Instruction. 

The  principal  language  forms  and  principles  of  good  use 
have  been  covered  in  the  primary  school.  Instruction  now 
becomes  a  matter  of  establishing  the  habit  of  good  use. 

The  teacher  will  select  from  her  first  set  of  papers  a  group 
of  two  or  three  common  errors  and  make  a  note  of  them. 
She  will  then  emphasize  that  group  in  all  her  instruction  and 
correction  of  papers  patiently  and  diligently  until  those  er- 
rors are  rarely  seen.  Then,  and  not  till  then,  she  will  select 
another  group.  Drive  home  and  clinch  each  nail  as  you  come 
to  it,  if  you  never  drive  another.  Don't  teach  what  you  think 
your  pupils  ought  to  know;  teach  what  their  papers  tell  you 
they  do  not  know. 

Give  few  new  subjects,  but  get  out  of  each  theme  as  much 
training  as  you  can  without  staling.  After  the  regular 
corrections  have  been  made,  select  one  paper  and  have  it 
copied  upon  the  board,  word  for  word,  mistakes  and  all. 
Have  the  class  correct  it  minutely,  sentence  by  sentence,  and 
let  a  ])upil  write  down  the  corrected  form  as  fast  as  it  is 
obtained,  upon  another  part  of  the  board.  The  next  week, 
or  two  weeks  after,  take  another  pupil's  work  and  so  on. 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


47 


Do  not  assign  more  written  work  than  you  can  correct 
well.    (See  directions  on  correcting  under  third  year.) 

Papers  written  by  pupils  at  home  are  usually  worthless. 

Do  not  require,  or  allow,  long  papers, — not  less  than  a 
half-page,  nor  more  than  a  page  and  a  half,  of  ordinary  com- 
position paper. 

SEYE-XTH  AND  EIGHTH  YEARS. 

The  orderly  and  logical  arrangement  of  themes  in  para- 
graphs continues  to  be  the  main  line  of  constructive  training. 
The  larger  part  of  the  teacher's  attention  will,  however,  prob- 
ably go  to  drill  in  the  use  of  language  forms. 

ReproductiGii  or  the  writing  of  abstracts  should  be  dis- 
pensed with,  except  on  rare  occasions,  after  the  end  of  the 
sixth  year.  To  find  a  class  doing  little  but  abstract  work  in 
the  upper  grammar  or  high  school  may  usually  be  considered 
evidence  of  lack  of  industry  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

Themes. 

The  work  of  preceding  years  continued.  See  directions 
under  fifth  and  sixth  year  work  especially.  When  work  has 
been  well  done  by  earlier  teachers,  both  on  the  impressional 
and  on  the  expressional  side,  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  some 
work  in  seventh  and  eighth  years  which  has  real  literary  merit. 
Under  such  conditions,  it  is  indeed  perhaps  the  exceptional 
class  which  does  not  show  something  of  this  sort.  This  qual- 
ity should  be  sought  out  and  encouraged  in  every  possible 
way.    The  imaginative  theme  is  perhaps  one  of  the  best  ways 

The  imaginative  theme  may  be: 

(a)  Simply  a  conventional  short  story.  In  this  case,  the 
teacher  needs  to  guard  against  the  mere  reproduction  by 
pupils  of  short  stories  in  current  literature. 

(b)  Some  pupils  can  take  literary  masterpieces,  study  them, 
and  work  up  imaginative  imitations.  Here,  too,  the  teacher 
must  guard  against  mere  reproduction.  The  plot,  for  in- 
stance, may  be  substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the  study, 
but,  if  the  incidents  and  characters  used  in  developing  the 
scheme  are  different,  then  the  result  is  an  imitation  and  not 


48 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


a  reproduction.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  plot,  incidents,  and 
characters  turn  out  to  be  the  same  as  those  of  the  study, 
but  with  perhaps  different  names,  then  the  result  is  simply 
a  reproduction.  A  great  variety  of  imitations  can  be  secured, 
and,  for  pupils  of  latent  literary  and  artistic  sense,  this  work 
is  most  valuable,  and  is  apt  to  prove  to  be  of  absorbing  in- 
terest. 

The  narrative  and  descriptive  work  of  the  preceding  years 
should  be  continued. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  considerable  practice  in 
extended  working  up  of  material  should  be  given.  This, 
however,  would  best  be  done  on  other  than  composition  time 
and  in  connection  with  other  subjects,  history  and  geography 
particularly.  Such  a  task  should  have  for  its  object  the  gath- 
ering of  material  of  real  value  to  the  class,  and  to  carry  out 
this  purpose  these  essays  should  be  read  to  the  class  and  the 
class  should  be  required  to  take  notes  and  to  be  examined  on 
the  researches  of  their  classmates.  Such  a  theme  should  call 
for  careful  study,  the  looking  up  of  references  in  encyclope- 
dias, magazine  articles,  etc.,  the  arrangement  of  material,  and 
careful  thought  as  to  expression  by  the  pupil.  The  pupil 
should  not  be  allowed  to  make  these  essays  mere  abstracts 
of  sources  consulted;  to  avoid  this,  the  pupil  should  be  re- 
quired to  prepare  his  essay  in  outline  and  submit  the  same 
to  his  teacher  from  time  to  time  for  criticism  and  correction. 
Finally,  the  essay  should  be  written  in  the  schoolroom,  wholly 
from  outline  and  notes. 

Letter-writing. 

Continue  practice  of  fifth  and  sixth  years,  including  cor- 
respondence. Do  not  limit  the  latter  to  New  Hampshire  or 
our  own  country.    Letters  should  go  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Instruction. 

See  directions  under  preceding  years.  In  the  seventh  and 
eighth  years,  the  teacher  will  have  increasing  grammatical 
insight  on  the  part  of  pupils  as  an  instrument  of  criticism. 

I'or  illustration,  correction,  length  of  themes,  etc.,  see  pre- 
ceding years.  III  to  VI. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


SPELLING. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  development  of  good 
spellers  is  a  process  of  growth,  like  the  rest  of  education,  and 
not  merely  a  process  of  adding  word  by  word  to  the  pupil's 
store  of  correct  words.  It  rests  heavily  upon  at  least  three 
bases:  first,  the  selection  of  words  to  be  studied:  second,  the 
method  of  teaching  the  original  lesson;  third,  the  frequent 
iteration  cf  difficult  words. 

I.    Selectiox  of  Woeds  foe,  STrDY. 

The  campaign  of  developing  good  spellers  must  be  fought 
out  step  by  step  like  other  campaigns,  each  step  perfected 
before  the  new  one  is  taken.  Beginning  with  the  third 
grade,  the  teacher  must  make  it  her  main  purpose  to  see  that 
the  child  handles  correctly  those  words  which  he  commonly 
uses  at  his  present  age. 

Therefore,  select  as  spelling  lessons  the  common  words 
which  the  class  misspells  in  language  papers. 

About  once  in  two  weeks  in  years  III  to  YI,  once  a  month 
in  years  YII  and  YIII,  give  a  test,— an  unprepared  lesson, — 
of  from  twenty  to  fifty  words  according  to  year.  Each  time 
note  the  proportion  of  misspelled  words,  and  thus  gain  a 
rough  estimate  whether  you  are  gaining  or  losing.  After 
each  test,  the  misspelled  words  should  be  gathered  into  the 
teacher's  notebook  for  further  lessons  and  study. 

As  the  class  goes  up  through  the  grades,  it  will  probably 
be  found  that  fewer  and  fewer  words  are  misspelled  in  lan- 
guage papers  and  other  work,  and  that  the  stock  of  words 
available  for  lessons  is  consequently  growing  less.  Then  and 
not  till  then  may  the  teacher  venture  outside  this  circle  of  use 
for  the  study  of  rules  in  the  two  upper  grades  and  for  the 
study  of  the  less  commonly  used  words. 

49 


50 


SPELLING. 


Above  all^  never  select  a  word  simply  because  you  think 
the  children  ought  to  know  it.  Watch  the  papers;  they  will 
tell  you  what  the  class  ought  to  study. 

II.  iNSTRUCTIOJiT. 

The  basis  of  instruction  in  spelling  is  the  formation  of  clear 
and  accurate  memory  images  of  words.  There  seem  to  be 
four  forms  in  which  a  word  is  imaged  to  the  mind:  first,  as  a 
seen  object;  second,  as  a  heard  object;  third,  as  certain  feel- 
ings in  throat  and  mouth  peculiar  to  the  utterance  of  that 
v.'ord;  fourth,  as  a  written  object.  For  convenience,  let  us 
call  them  the  visual,  the  auditory,  the  vocal,  and  the  motor 
images. 

The  problem  then  comes  to  be  to  so  present  these  images 
that  the  necessary  associations  between  them  will  be  formed, 
and  in  such  wise  that  one  reinforces  the  other. 

Outline;  for  a  Lesson. 

I.  Leave  the  lesson  wdiich  is  to  be  studied  on  the  board 
for  an  hour  or  two,  at  least,  before  taking  it  up, — each  word 
in  syllabic  form. 

In  studying  the  lesson  with  the  class,  it  is  probably  best  to 
place  the  words  on  the  board,  in  syllabic  form,  one  at  a  time, 
for  the  sake  of  the  greater  concentration  of  attention. 

II.  As  each  word  appears  on  the  board  before  the  class, 
have  the  whole  class  look  closely  at  it  for  a  moment  and  then 
call  several  children  to  pronounce,  spell,  and  pronounce  very 
distinctly, — always  observing  the  separation  into  syllables. 
Finally,  have  the  class  together  pronounce,  spell,  and  pro- 
nounce each  word. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  with  the  pronunciation,  seeing 
to  it  that  each  syllable  has  its  full  value,  even  to  the  point 
of  exaggerating  the  sounds  of  the  various  vowels  and  conso- 
nants. 

III.  Make  sure  of  the  understanding  of  each  word  before 
it  is  finally  given. 


SPELLING. 


51 


IV.  Have  the  lesson  written  from  dictation  as  soon  as  it 
has  been  thoroughly  studied.  And  note  that  this  writing  is 
merely  rounding  out  and  fixing  the  dars  instruction, — 
the  setting  of  the  motor  image:  it  is  not  a  test,  except  of  the 
closeness  of  the  pupil's  attention  and  of  the  force  with  which, 
the  teacher  has  presented  the  lesson. 

Y.  Eepeat  all  lessons  in  which  the  class  misspells  more 
than  five  per  cent  of  the  gross  total  of  words  given. 

Do  not  take  more  than  fifteen  minutes  for  the  complete 
exercise,  including  the  writing.  Five  to  eight  minutes  for 
all  except  writing  is  sutficient.  Give  four  to  six  words  to  a 
lesson  in  year  III;  five  to  eight  in  years  TV  and  V;  ten  in 
years  Y  to  IX. 

Spelling  matches  are  an  excellent  method  of  review. 


CHAPTEE  VIL 


GEAMMAE. 

In  the  constriictive  language  work,  the  aim  is  to  train  the 
pnpil  to  the  adequate  expression  of  his  own  thoughts.  In  the 
study  of  grammar,  the  mind  is  concerned  with  the  analysis  of 
thought  already  expressed  either  by  the  self  or  by  others. 
The  mental  attitude  of  the  student  in  the  one  subject  is  the 
reverse  of  that  in  the  other.  For  this  reason  these  two  forms 
of  language  work  (the  constructive  and  the  analytic)  should 
not  be  combined  in  the  same  exercise.  The  first  is  concrete, 
the  second  abstract;  both  forms  of  training  are  necessary  to 
the  well-ordered  and  efficient  mind.  But  the  abstract  is 
valueless  unless  based  on  several  years'  effective  work  in  the 
concrete. 

This  chapter  is  a  statement  of  the  grammatical  knowledge 
which  it  is  deemed  desirable  that  a  pupil  should  have  on 
completing  the  elementary  school  rather  than  a  teaching  out- 
line. Teachers  will  commonly  use  a  text  and  will  follow  the 
outline  therein. 

All  portions  of  any  text  which  deals  with  logical  subtleties 
or  mere  grammatical  cataloguing  should  be  omitted,  such  for 
instance  as  the  difference  between  copulative  and  substantive 
verbs,  coordinate  and  subordinate  conjunctions,  cognate  ob- 
jects, weak  and  strong  verbs,  and  the  like. 

The  teacher  should  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  main 
object  of  the  teaching  of  grammar,  namely,  to  put  the  pupil 
in  possession  of  a  power  by  which  he  may  know  the  differ- 
ence between  correct  and  incorrect  speech. 

Seveinth  y,E^R. 

1.    Study  of  the  sentence. 

1.    Form, — declarative,    interrogative,  imperative, 
exclamatory. 

52 


GRAMMAR. 


53 


2.    Subject  and  predicate, — simple  and  complete. 
II.    Parts  of  speech. 

1.  Practice  in  identifying  same  until  pupils  make 

few,  if  any,  mistakes. 

2.  Nouns, — common,  proper,  collective. 

3.  Verbs, — transitive  and  intransitive,  active  and 

passive. 

in.    Sentence  study  continued. 

1.  Modifiers  of  subject  and  predicate. 

2.  Phrases  and  modifiers. 

3.  Verb  forms, — infinitives  and  participles  and  use 

in  the  sentence. 

4.  Simple,  compound,  and  complex  sentences. 

5.  Clauses  and  their  uses. 
IV.    Analysis  of  sentences. 

Constant  practice  from  the  first  in  analysis. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  year  the  pupil  should  be 
able  to  analyze  any  ordinary  grammatical  sentence. 

A  good  method  of  diagraming  will  prove  to  be 
a  great  help  in  enabling  pupils  to  visualize  the  con- 
struction of  sentences. 

Eighth  Yeak. 

Eeview  seventh  year  work  with  much  practice  in  analysis. 
I.    Systematic  study  of  parts  of  speech. 
1.  Nouns. 

a.  Gender, — masculine,  feminine,  common, 

neuter. 

b.  Number, — singular  and  plural — rules  for 

formation  of  number — peculiarities 
of  number. 

c.  Person. 

d.  Case, — nominative,   possessive,  and  ob- 

jective— appositives — nominative  in- 
dependent and  absolute — formation 
of  possessive — objective  indirect  and 
indirect  object  and  prepositional  ob- 
ject. 


54 


GRAMMAR. 


e.    Declension  with  practice. 

2.  Pronouns. 

a.  Personal,  demonstrative,  indefinite. 

b.  Alternative,  interrogative,  relative. 

c.  Declension  with  practice. 

3.  Adjectives. 

a.  Descriptive,  demonstrative,  numeral.  ' 

b.  The  articles. 

c.  Comparison. 

4.  Verbs. 

a.  Transitive  and  intransitive. 

b.  Voice,  mode,  modal  auxiliaries, — tense, 

person. 

c.  Verbal  nouns. 

d.  Conjugation  with  practice. 

5.  Adverbs. 

a.  Simple,  interrogative,  relative. 

b.  Comparison. 

II.    Parsing  with  much  practice. 

III.  Use  as  determining  part  of  speech. 

IV.  Practice  in  analysis  and  parsing. 


CHAPTER  VIIL 

ARITHMETIC. 

In  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  two  main  ends  should  be 
kept  in  view  (a)  proper  mental  training,  and  (b)  such  power 
of  efficient  calculation  as  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life  call 
for.  The  teacher,  or  superintendent,  whose  view  is  single 
to  the  first  end  is  apt  to  turn  out  pupils  at  the  end  of  the 
common  school  course  who  cannot  grapple  with  the  ordinary 
arithmetic  of  business.  He  who  thinks  only  of  the  second 
usually  succeeds  in  developing  merely  a  limited  mechanical, 
facility  in  some  few  processes  easily  forgotten  and  incapable 
of  adjustment  to  strange  applications. 

School  boards  are  especially  cautioned  that  good  results  in 
arithmetic  are  not  proportioned  to  prolonged  study  of  the 
subject,  but  rather  to  skillful  teaching.  The  first  six  years 
of  school  life  are  ordinarily  sufficient  for  all  the  arithmetic 
needed,  except  for  special  service  like  banking;  eight  years 
are  allowed. 

It  will  ordinarily  be  necessary  to  use  a  series  of  arithme- 
tics, and  the  outline  of  the  series  in  use  will  be  followed.  An 
outline  is  here  given  for  the  purpose,  mainly,  of  indicating 
the  work  which  should  be  accomplished,  year  by  year.  School 
boards  are  advised  seldom  to  change  the  text-books  in  use 
in  this  subject.  Some  of  the  books  in  use  many  years  ago 
are  still  better  guides  for  the  average  teacher  than  most  of 
the  newer  books,  admirable  as  the  latter  may  be  under  com- 
petent expert  supervision. 

Results. — At  the  end  of  each  year,  beginning  with  the 
third,  the  class  as  a  whole  should  be  able  to  show  a  total  gen- 
eral average  of  at  least  seventy  per  cent  on  examinations 
covering  all  work  outlined. 

1.    Number  space  objectively  to  10. 

55 


56 


ARITHMETIC. 


Teach  in  the  following  order:  l-2-4:-8-3-6-12-9-5-10-7. 
This  will  giA^e  opportunity  to  teach  by  grouping  and  the  use 
of  the  primary  relationships  at  the  same  time.  Paper  cut- 
tings, blocks,  splints,  and  other  objects  may  be  used.  Teach 
names  and  figures,  and  teach  children  to  write  figures.  Do 
not  teach  counting;  pupils  should  have  picked  it  up  by  the 
time  10  is  taught.  Teach  4  as  2  2's;  8  as  2  4's,  etc.  Pupils 
should  be  taught  to  recognize  groups  as  high  as  5  without 
counting. 

II.    Combinations  and  relations  of  numbers. 

Do  not  allow  the  children  to  learn  by  rote.  If  the  work 
of  Part  I  has  been  well  done,  they  will  not.  The  class  may 
be  drilled  upon  the  combinations  and  relations  after  they 
have  been  learned  objectively.  If  a  pupil  hesitates,  require 
him  to  rediscover  the  answer  by  the  use  of  objects. 

Part  II  should  be  illustrated  with  simple  concrete  work 
or  problem.  In  this  connection,  teach  the  inch,  foot,  and 
yard. 

Eesults. — At  the  end  of  the  year,  the  pupil  should  know 
the  number  space  up  to  10;  that  is,  the  forty-five  combina- 
tions by  addition  with  the  complementary  subtraction;  should 
be  able  to  apply  them  in  concrete  illustrations;  should  know 
the  fractional  parts  J,  -J,  and  i;  and  should  be  able  to  recog- 
nize and  to  estimate  the  length  of  the  inch,  foot,  and  yard. 

The  teacher  will  find  valuable  suggestions  in  the  following 
books: 

Belfield  &  Brooks'  Eational  Elementary  Arithmetic 

 S.  F.  &  Co. 

Hall's  Arithmetic  Primer  ..A.  B.  C. 

Smith's  Primary  Arithmetic  Ginn 

Arithmetic  for  Beginners  Heath 

Course  in  Arithmetic.  .  .N.  H.  Educational  Council 

Arithmetical  Games  Cincinnati  Game  Co. 

Speer's  Arithmetic,  Teachers'  Manuals  Ginn 


ARITHMETIC. 


67 


Second  Year. 


I.  Xumbers  reviewed  and  extended  to  24:,  as  in  first  year, 
bnt  not  all  combinations  or  relationships.  Practice  same 
with  percejDtion  cards  for  a  few  minutes  each  day  throughout 
the  year. 

II.  Counting  objects. 

III.  The  multiplication  tables. 

On  no  account  should  the  tables  be  learned  by  rote  or  in 
the  abstract.  The  pupils  should  build  up  the  tables  by  pro- 
cess of  objective  discovery,  following  the  lines  laid  down 
under  first  year  work.  For  instance,  the  table  of  4's  may  be 
built  up  by  laying  groups  of  4's,  thus: 


The  tables  are,  however,  valueless  unless  they  are  memor- 
ized. Accordingly,  as  fast  as  they  are  constructed,  they 
should  be  committed  to  memory.  In  drilling  on  tables, 
whenever  the  pupil  is  at  fault,  he  should  be  given  objects 
and  required  to  find  the  right  answer  for  himself. 

IV.  Practice  in  reading  and  writing  figures  not  higher 
than  1,000. 

V.  Denominate  units  of  the  first  year  reviewed  and  liquid 
and  dry  measure  units,  and  United  States  money,  taught  in 
the  same  way.    (See  notes  on  first  year.) 

Eoman  notation  in  learning  to  tell  time  by  the  clock,  and 
in  learning  to  read  the  numbers  of  chapters. 

Work  should  constantly  be  illustrated  by  concrete  ex- 
amples, as  in  the  first  year. 

Ee«ults. — At  the  end  of  the  second  year,  the  pupils 
should  know  the  fractional  parts,  ^,  -J,  ^,  etc.,  up  to  1/12,  and 
should  be  able  to  apply  them  concretely;  should  know  the 
multiplication  tables  through  the  7's;  and  should  be  able  to 
recognize  and  estimate  the  denominate  units  taught. 


1111 

1111  =r.l2. 
1111 


58 


ARITHMETIC. 


Third  Year. 

I.  The  mulitiplication  tables  reviewed,  completed,  and 
drilled. 

The  tables  should  first  be  taught  with  a  view  to  the  maxi- 
mum of  mental  growth.  The  problem  then  becomes  one  of 
making  them  an  efficient  tool  for  further  study.  The  pupil 
must  be  drilled  in  their  use,  mainly  by  the  help  of  perception 
cards,  until  he  responds  instantly,  automatically,  upon  seeing 
or  hearing  a  combination  of  numbers  from  the  table.  Future 
capacity  for  arithmetical  work  will  depend  largely  upon 
thoroughness  in  this  work. 

Exercises  with  perception  cards  should  be  given  daily  for  a 
few  minutes  throughout  the  year. 

II.  Notation  and  numeration. 

III.  (a)  Daily  practice  in  rapid  calculation";  (b) 
simple  operations  in  addition,  subtraction,  short  multiplica- 
tion, short  division. 

This  work  should  constantly  be  illustrated  and  assimilated 
through  simple  problems.  In  the  selection  of  problems,  aim 
to  secure  those  which  deal  with  quantities  and  conditions  fa- 
miliar to  the  common  experience  of  children  of  this  age. 

Illustrations. 

Find  out  at  home  or  from  your  neighbor  how  much  hard 
coal  is  required  to  supply  some  furnace  or  stove  for  one 
month.  At  the  current  price  of  coal,  how  much  will  it  cost 
to  supply  this  stove  for  one  month?  For  the  six  cold 
months? 

Let  the  pupils  make  a  list  showing  the  current  prices  of 
provisions.  Out  of  this  material,  make  and  have  the  pupils 
make  a  great  variety  of  problems. 

Bear  in  mind  (a)  that  all  work  should  be  done  mentally 
and  without  paper  if  possible,  that  written  work  should  be 
done  only  when  unwritten  work  is  impossible;  and  (b)  that 
no  problem,  either  mental  or  written,  should  be  allowed  to 
pass  without  explanation  by  the  pupil. 

IV.  Use  of  fractions  already  learned  in  simple  operations 


ARITHMETIC. 


59 


in  addition  and  subtraction.  Visualize  all  this  work  with 
fractions. 

V.  Denominate  units  reviewed  and  constantly  used  in 
problems. 

Teach  the  units  of  square  measure  in  connection  with  mul- 
tiplication. 

Eesults. — See  preliminary  note. 
Refer  ernes. 

See  lists  of  first  year.  For  some  of  these  works  it  will  be 
necessary  to  choose  the  second  in  the  series.  Also 

Southworth-Stone  Arithmetic  B.  H.  S.  &  Co. 

Fourth  Yeae. 

I.  Daily  exercises  of  a  few  minutes  each. 

^a)  Eapid  oalculatiox^  using  all  previous  work  as  a  basis. 

(b)  The  multiplication  table. 

(c)  Notation  and  numeration. 

II.  The  fundamental  processes  reviewed.  Multiplication 
and  division  completed. 

As  in  the  third  year,  this  work  should  be  illustrated  and 
assimilated  by  the  solution  of  simple  problems.  See  notes 
on  problems  under  third  year  work.  Such  problems  as  those 
given  there  will  be  suitable,  and  problems  like  the  following: 

How  many  square  feet  in  the  floor  of  the  schoolroom? 
How  many  board  feet?  Find  the  cost  of  the  floor,  teacher 
supplying  the  necessary  data. 

A  room  is  well  lighted  when  the  floor  space  is  not  more 
than  six  times  the  window^  space.  Is  your  schoolroom  well 
lighted?  your  hall?  your  room  at  home? 

Let  the  pupils  plan  to  furnish  a  dining-room  and  figure 
the  cost. 

Many  additional  practical  problems  can  be  found  in  the 
work  of  gardening,  if  the  school  has  a  garden.  Some  simple 
processes  like  average  may  be  taught  incidentally  in  connec- 
tion with  problems. 

in.  Continue  third  year  work  with  fractions  and  denom- 
inate units.  Have  pupils  do  many  actual  measurements  with 
the  latter  in  determining  data  for  problems. 


60 


ARITHMETIC. 


Results. — At  the  end  of  the  fourth  year,  the  pupils  should 
know  the  following  so  thoroughly  that  it  will  never  be  neces- 
sary to  take  them  up  again: 

(a)  The  multiplication  tables  and  all  combinations  involv- 
ing simple  addition  and  subtraction. 

(b)  The  processes  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication, 
and  division. 

(c)  Notation  and  numeration  of  integers. 

(d)  The  tables  of  linear,  liquid,  dry,  and  square  measure, 
and  United  States  money,  using  only  the  units  which  are 
within  the  comprehension  and  management  of  the  pupils. 

See: 

Eational  Grammar  School  Arithmetic,  pp.  4-7, 
11-18   S.  F.  &  Co. 

McLellan  &  Ames'  Public  School  Arithmetic  for 
grammar  grades,  problems  scattered  through  the 
first  100  pages   MacM. 

Fifth  Year. 

I.  Daily  exercises  ii^  rapid  calculation",  using  all 
the  work  done  in  preceding  years  as  a  basis. 

II.  First  half-year. 

Common  fractions:  reductions  and  four  processes.  Teach 
only  operations  with  small  numbers.  Fractions  with  large 
terms  seldom  occur  in  practice  and  they  are  confusing  to  the 
beginner.  Teach  least  common  multiple  and  greatest  com- 
mon divisor  in  connection  with  fractions,  using  only  such 
expressions  as  can  be  solved  by  inspection.  Do  not  teach  the 
long  processes  of  either  at  this  time. 

Second  half-year. 

Decimal  fractions:  notation  and  numeration,  reductions, 
four  processes,  and  relations  between  common  and  decimal 
fractions. 

Problems  should  constantly  be  based  upon  data  secured 
by  pupils  (a)  at  home  and  about  the  schoolroom  and  school 
grounds;  (b)  in  connection  with  handwork,  school  gardening, 
and  geography.  A  large  measure  of  the  teacher's  success 
will  depend  upon  her  ability  to  supply  and  suggest  problems 
of  this  sort. 


AlilTHMETIC. 


61 


The  teacher  is  again  reminded  that  all  problems  should  be 
solved  without  pencil  and  paper  whenever  possible.  The 
teacher  should  also  remember  that  problems  exist  for  tlie  sake 
of  arithmetic  teaching  and  not  arithmetic  teaching  for  the 
sake  of  problems. 

Results. — See  preliminary  notes. 

Sixth  Yeae. 

The  sixth  year  is  devoted  largely  to  what  has  commonlv 
been  known  as  business  arithmetic.  Much  of  the  work  treated 
under  this  head  in  text-books,  both  ancient  and  modern,  is 
obsolete  in  the  world  of  every-day  business.  The  common 
school  should  train  pupils  with  sufficient  arithmetic  to  meet 
the  demands  of  ordinary  business.  They  should  not  attempt 
to  produce  bank  clerks,  actuaries,  expert  accountants,  etc. 

I.  Daily  e'sercises  ix  rapid  calculatiox'  based  upon 
all  previous  work. 

II.  Common  and  decimal  fractions  reviewed  (12  weeks). 
Teach  the  pupils  to  manage  somewhat  more  difficult  frac- 
tions than  last  year.  Teach  factoring  and  the  long  processes 
of  greatest  common  divisor  and  lowest  common  multiple. 
Give  constant  practice  in  the  notation  and  numeration  of  dec- 
imals; this  is  one  of  the  points  on  which  pupils  most  fre- 
quently fail  in  the  high  school. 

III.  The  application  of  decimals  to  (a)  percentage;  (b; 
profit  and  loss;  (c)  simple  interest;  (d)  trade  discount. 

See  notes  on  problems  under  all  preceding  years.  Prob- 
lems must  be  made  as  practical  as  possible.  It  is  futile  to 
hope  to  train  pupils  in  the  grammar  school  for  alb  the  appli- 
cations of  arithmetic  to  business  purposes.  Much  incom- 
petency in  arithmetic  has  happened  on  this  account.  See 
that  pupils  are  well  grounded  in  the  fundamentals  and  the 
applications  will  take  care  of  themselves.  If  a  pupil  thor- 
oughly understands  percentage,  it  will  not  take  him  long  to 
master  the  simple  arithmetic  of  taxes  when  he  needs  to.  If 
he  is  hazy  on  percentage  he  will  never  be  able  to  understand 
any  of  its  applications. 


62 


ARITHMETIC. 


Teach  pupils  to  bill  accounts  and  to  draw  checks  and  prom- 
issory notes. 

Good  collections  may  be  found  in: 

Smith's  Grammar  School  Arithmetic  Ginn 

Winslow's  Natural  Arithmetic,  III  A.  B.  C. 

Eational  Grammar  School  Arithmetic.  .S.  F.  &  Co. 
McLellan  &  Ames'  Public  School  Arithmetic  for 

Grammar  Grades   MacM. 

Sensenig  &  Anderson's  Introductory  Arithmetic. 

  Silver 

Southworth  &  Stone's  Arithmetics.  .B.  H.  S.  &  Co. 

Southworth's  Problems  in  Arithmetic  

  B.  H.  S.  &  Co. 

Hall's  Arithmetics   A.  B.  C. 

Nichols'  Arithmetic,  V  and  VI  T.  B.  &  Co. 

AYalsh's  New  Grammar  School  Arithmetic ..  .Heath 

(Good  for  large  number  of  civil  service  and  public  . 
school  examination  papers.) 

Eesults. — See  preliminary  notes. 

At  the  end  of  the  sixth  year,  pupils  should  know  finally, 
in  addition  to  that  already  laid  down  under  fourth  year,  all 
simple  operations  in  common  and  decimal  fractions.  It  will 
not  do  for  the  teacher  to  estimate  the  ability  of  the  class;  her 
knowledge  should  be  a  matter  of  examination.  (See  Tests 
and  Examinations.) 

Seventh  Year. 

I.  EaPID  CALCULATIONS  AS  IN  PREVIOUS  YEARS. 

II.  Review  of  percentage  and  its  applications. 

III.  Bills,  notes,  and  other  business  paper  and  single- 
entry  bookkeeping. 

IV.  Compound  numbers  (second  half-year). 
Peductions  and  four  processes.    Problems  under  principles 

enunciated  for  previous  years. 
P.i:suLTS. — See  preliminary  notes. 


ARITHMETIC. 


68 


Eighth  Yeae. 

I.  Rapid  icalculations  as  in  peevious  yeaes. 

II.  Mensuration. 

No  part  of  arithmetic  is  more  useful  than  this.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  practical  utility,  and  at  the  same  time  is  richest  in 
educational  values.  It  is  perhaps  the  hest  introduction  to 
the  geometry  of  the  high  school.  As  in  other  years,  the  daily 
life  and  experience  of  pupils  should  be  levied  upon  exten- 
sively for  data  for  problems. 

The  following  lines  of  exercises  are  suggested: 

Height  of  buildings,  towers,  trees,  etc. 

Distance  between  points  mutually  inaccessible  in  a  straight 
line,  as  distance  across  a  small  pond  or  through  a  building. 

Areas  of  plane  figures, — triangles,  quadrilaterals,  poly- 
gons, circles. 

Surface  and  solid  contents  of  prisms,  pyramids,  cylinders, 
cones,  and  spheres. 

Eatio  and  -proportion  and  square  root  should  be  taught  in 
connection  with  mensuration  as  the  need  of  the  use  becomes 
evident. 

In  connection  with  compound  numbers,  teach  the  metric 
system.  Do  not  teach  the  relations  between  the  metric  and 
the  English  system  until  toward  the  end,  and  then  merely 
show  the  pupils  where  and  how  they  can  look  up  the  relation. 
Do  not  require  them  to  burden  their  memories  with  the  nu- 
merical relations.  Teach  pupils  to  recognize  and  estimate 
metric  units  precisely  as  they  did  English  units  in  the  first 
year. 

III.  General  review  (second  half-year). 

For  this  purpose,  it  is  well  to  divide  the  entire  course  up 
into  a  series  of  topics,  twenty-five  or  thirty,  and  proceed  by  a 
series  of  tests,  pausing  for  instruction  on  those  only  in  which 
the  general  average  of  the  class  falls  below  some  arbitrary 
standard,  say  ninety  per  cent. 


6-4 


ARITHMETIC. 


General  references  on  teaching  arithmetic: 

Smith:  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics  

 \   MacM. 

McMurry:  Method  of  the  Eecitation  MacM. 

Teachers'  College  Eecord,  Vol.  4,  No.  2  

.  .   Columbia  Univ.  Press 

McLellan  &  Dewey:  Psychology  of  Number  

  Appleton 


CHAPTER  IX. 


GEOGEAPHY. 

Geography  is  continuous  with  the  nature  study  of  the  four 
primary  years  and  is  at  the  same  time  the  basis  of  the  geology 
and  astronomy^  the  pliysics  and  chemistry,  of  tlie  high  school. 
Good  work  in  the  geography  of  the  grammar  school  will  be 
conditioned  largely  on  the  broad  apperceptive  mass  accumu- 
lated in  (a)  the  kindergarten  and  nature  study  of  the  earlier 
school  years  and  (b)  in  the  out-of-school  experience  of  the 
child.  Just  in  so  far  as  (b)  is  weak, — ^^as  almost  always  in 
the  cases  of  town  and  city  children, — so  ought  (a)  to  be  es- 
pecially strong.  Ability  to  assimilate  science  teaching  in  the 
high  school  period  will  depend  largely  on  the  character  of  the 
work  done  in  the  geography  of  the  grammar  school. 

The  character  of  geography. 

Before  all  else  teachers  and  school  boards  are  cautioned 
that  geography  is  a  subject  to  be  understood  as  deahng  with 
related  series  of  cause  and  effect,  and  not  a  collection  of  facts 
to  be  memorized.  Geography  is  closely  related  to  other  school 
subjects,  and  the  capable  teacher  will  correlate  her  teaching 
of  geography  with  that  of  reading,  composition,  history,  and 
handwork  especially. 

Apparatus  for  objective  teaching. 

Just  as  high  school  science  cannot  properly  be  taught  ex- 
cept by  use  of  the  laboratory,  so  pupils  can  gain  little  com- 
prehension of  geographical  facts  and  principles  except 
through  actual  experience  of  the  concrete  facts. 

The  first  requisite  is  time  and  ability  and  permission  to 
conduct  excursions  of  the  pupils  in  the  fields  and  woods,  by 


65 


66 


GEOGRAPHr. 


brooks  and  rivers,  the  lake  shore  and  seaside,  over  hills  and 
mountains,  and  through  valleys;  and  to  the  seats  of  the 
varied  industries  of  the  state. 

The  apparatus  needed  for  the  schoolroom  can  mostly  be 
improvised  by  the  teacher,  but  the  following  should  be  pro- 
vided: (1)  Maps  in  abundance,  preferably  without  names  of 
localities  and  surface  features.  The  maps  of  the  text-books 
should  furnish  all  needed  information  as  to  names.  Maps  in 
text-books  should  be  clear  and  especially  should  multiplica- 
tion of  detail  be  avoided.  (2)  Illustrative  material  of  all 
sorts,  including  samples  of  industrial  products,  photographs, 
clippings  from  periodicals,  government  reports  and  bulletins. 
This  department  will  from  time  to  time  issue  bulletins,  show- 
ing lists  of  the  last  named  which  are  available  for  school  use. 
The  school  board  should  each  year  set  aside  a  sum  of  money 
for  the  accumulation  of  such  illustrative  material.  If  pos- 
sible a  stereopticon  or  porte  lumiere  should  be  provided  for 
each  building,  with  lantern  slides.  (3)  A  few  good  globes; 
ordinarily  a  single  globe  for  each  room  will  suffice;  a  spherical 
blackboard  for  each  building  would  be  useful. 

Correspondence. 

A  valuable  adjunct  to  the  illustrative  material  named 
above  will  be  correspondence  with  pupils  of  similar  age  and 
grade  in  other  towns  of  this  state,  in  other  states,  in  the 
English-speaking  foreign  countries.  Letters  addressed  to 
Holland,  Belgium,  the  German  empire,  and  France  will  usu- 
ally call  forth  answers.  They  should  be  addressed  to  local 
superintendents  of  schools  in  this  country,  or  to  school  di- 
rectors or  inspectors  in  other  English-speaking  lands.  Let- 
ters should  deal  largely  with  descriptions  of  home  industries 
and  history  and  customs,  and  wherever  possible  should  en- 
close photographs  illustrating  the  same. 

Time  alhwances. 

In  order  to  indicate  right  proportions,  each  topic  is  credited 
with  a  certain  number  of  weeks  in  a  year  of  thirty-six  weeks. 
When  the  length  of  the  year  is  other  than  thirty-six  weeks, 
time  allowances  must  be  proportionately  reduced.  Xo  allow- 
ance is  made  for  review,  since  every  lesson  should  he  a  review. 


GEOGRAPHT. 


67 


Fifth  Yeak, 

I  (8  weeks).  Study  of  soil,  hills,  mountains,  brooks,  riv- 
ers, lakes,  the  air  and  ocean,  industries,  and  goYernment. 

II  (2  weeks).  Geography  of  the  schoolroom,  school 
grounds,  and  city  or  village.  ^laps  should  be  made  of  each 
of  these  four  units  and  the  children  taught  to  draw  to  scale. 

III  (2  weeks).  The  earth.  Continents  and  oceans,  the 
zones  and  their  boundaries. 

IV.    The  world  as  a  whole. 

1.  (18  weeks.)    The  United  States  by  groups  of  states. 

2.  (2  weeks.)  The  countries  in  Xorth  America  north  and 
south  of  the  Tnited  States. 

3.  (4  weeks.)  South  America.  Europe,  Asia.  Africa,  and 
Australia. 

(I)  Take  several  excursions.  Have  children  bring  into  the 
schoolroom  samples  of  different  soils,  showing  as  far  as  pos- 
sible process  of  formation.  Hills,  mountains,  brooks  and 
river  valleys,  and  lake  basins  should  be  studied  at  tlie  sand 
table.  Movements  of  air  and  water  may  be  illustrated  by  not- 
ing the  effect  of  heat  on  each.  The  character  of  the  air  as 
a  real  body  occupying  space  should  be  demonstrated.  Indus- 
tries and  government  may  be  illustrated  from  local  industrial 
plants  and  study  of  home,  county,  state,  and  national  gov- 
ernments,  naming  the  persons  holding  office. 

(TV)  The  study  of  the  world  as  a  whole  is  designed  to  give 
merely  a  superficial  view.  It  should  cover  (a)  physical  fea- 
tures, (b)  peoples,  (c)  industries  and  products,  (d)  govern- 
ment. Each  country  studied  should  be  mapped  by  pupils, 
and  especially  should  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  in  the 
growth  of  cities  and  industries  be  emphasized. 

See  preliminary  notes  on  apparatus  and  illustration. 

Letter-writing. 

Continue  weather  records  of  nature  study. 

Reading  for  pvpils. 

Brooks  and  Brook  Baisins  Ginn 

Geographical  Xature  Studies  A.  B.  C. 


68 


GEOGRAPHY. 


How  We  Are  Fed  MacM. 

How  We  Are  Clothed  MacM. 

Glimpses  of  the  World  Silver 

The  Frozen  North  Heath 

Sixth  YIeae. 

I.    The  earth. 

1.  (2  weeks.)  The  earth's  movements,  daily  and  annual, 
— succession  of  day  and  night  and  change  of  seasons. 

2.  (3  weeks.)    Winds  and  ocean  currents. 

3.  (2  weeks.)  Distribution  of  temperature  and  climatic 
conditions. 

11.    ISTorth  America — intensive  study. 

1.  (2  weeks.)  Physiography,  including  elementary  geo- 
logical development,  plant  and  animal  life. 

2.  (6  weeks.)    The  New  England  States. 

3.  (3  weeks.)    The  Middle  Atlantic  States. 

4.  (3  weeks.)    The  Southern  States. 

5.  (3  weeks.)    The  Central  States. 

6.  (3  weeks.)    The  Western  States. 

7.  (3  weeks.)  Territories  and  dependencies  of  United 
States. 

8.  (3  weeks.)    Countries  north  of  United  States. 

9.  (3  weeks.)  Countries  south  of  United  States. 
See  notes  under  fifth  year  and  preliminary  notes. 

(I)  All  lessons  must  be  completely  illustrated  and  demon- 
strated objectively,  both  by  teacher  and  by  pupil. 

For  section  1,  globes  are  not  essential  but  useful.  A  single 
good  globe  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  should  be  sufficient. 
For  purposes  of  demonstration  by  pupils,  simple  balls  are  full 
better  than  globes.  The  work  under  this  section  should  not 
be  considered  done  until  every  pupil  can  take  a  ball  repre- 
senting the  earth  and  place  it  at  command  in  the  proper  posi- 
tion to  represent  any  annual  or  diurnal  phase. 

For  section  2,  some  easily  controlled  source  of  heat,  such 
as  a  lamp  or  an  oil  stove,  will  serve  all  purposes. 

For  section  3,  outline  maps  are  needcMl.    Pupils  should  be 


GEOGRAPHY. 


69 


sent  to  the  wall  map  and  required  to  predict  from  elevations 
and  relation  to  ocean^  what  the  climate  of  different  sections 
of  land  mass  will  be. 

(II)  The  objects  of  teaching  are  outlined  under  fifth  year, 
namely,  (a)  physical  features,  (b)  peoples,  (c)  industries  and 
products,  (d)  government.  To  these  may  be  added  (e)  com- 
merce and  lines  of  transportation.  The  controlling  general 
purpose  should  be  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  showing  the 
reason  for  the  existence  of  towns,  cities,  industries,  etc. 
Double  time  is  allotted  to  the  study  of  the  New  England 
States,  and  they  should  be  studied  thoroughly  for  the  sake 
of  the  typical  instances  they  contain.  The  location  of  Bos- 
ton, Bangor,  Concord,  and  Manchester  and  Dover,  once  well 
understood,  will  explain  the  greater  part  of  the  rest  of  the 
country,  and  indeed  of  the  whole  world. 

Current  events  daily. 

Letter-writing,  as  in  the  fifth  year. 

Weather  record  continued. 


Beading  for  pupils. 

Fifth  year  books;  also 

Carpenters  North  America  A.  B.  C. 

Our  Own  Country  Silver 

Tarr  and  McMurry's  Supplement  for  New  England 

  MacM. 

The  Land  We  Live  In  L.  &  S. 

The  Western  United  States  Heath 

Alice's  Visit  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  A.  B.  C. 

Hawaii  and  Its  People  Silver 

Our  American  Neighbors  Silver 

Porto  Eico   Silver 


Seventh  Year. 

I.    The  earth. 

1.  (3  weeks.)  Movements  of  earth,  and  of  air  and  ocean 
currents  thoroughly  reviewed. 

2.  (2  weeks.)    Latitude,  longitude,  and  time. 

3.  (1  week.)    Light  zones  and  heat  zones. 


70 


GEOGRAPHY. 


4.    (1  week.)    Weather  maps. 

II.    South  America  and  Europe — intensively. 

1.  (1  week.)  Physiography  of  South  America,  and  plant 
and  animal  life. 

2.  (2  weeks.)  Brazil. 

3.  (2  weeks.)  Argentina. 

4.  (1  week.)    Uruguay  and  Paraguay. 

5.  (2  weeks.)    The  Guianas  and  A^enezuela. 

6.  (1  week.)    Colombia,  Ecuador,  Bolivia,  and  Peru. 

7.  (1  week.)  Chile. 

8.  (1  week.)  Physiography  and  plant  and  animal  life  of 
Europe. 

9.  (3  weeks.)    The  British  Islands. 

10.  (1  week.)    Holland  and  Belgium. 

11.  (3  weeks.)    The  German  Empire. 

12.  (3  weeks.)  France. 

13.  (1  week.)    Spain  and  Portugal. 

14.  (2  weeks.)    Austria  and  Italy. 

15.  (1  week.)    Turkey,  Greece,  and  the  Balkan  States. 

16.  (3  weeks.)  Russia. 

17.  (1  week.)    Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 

(I)  Numerous  examples  in  latitude,  longitude,  and  time 
should  be  given.  Arithmetic  time  can  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

Light  zones  and  heat  zones  should  be  distinguished.  Give 
some  practice  in  plotting  isotherms  from  data  supplied  by  the 
daily  weather  map. 

Weather  maps  may  be  obtained  daily  by  mail  on  application 
to  the  weather  l)ureau  authorities.  Children  should  be  taughc 
to  read  them  and  to  observe  the  daily  changes  of  weather  as 
predicted  from  the  weather  maps. 

(II)  See  preliminary  notes  and  notes  on  fifth  and  sixth 
year  work.  An  excellent  plan  for  the  treatment  of  Part  11 
is  to  imagine  that  teacher  and  pupils  are  to  make  a  journey 
to  and  through  the  lands  wliicli  arc  studied. 

Letter- writing  continued. 

Weather  record  daily  throughout  the  year. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


71 


Geographical  themes.  See  chapter  on  composition  for 
seventh  and  eighth  years.  Pupils  may  be  assigned  special 
topics  to  he  worked  up  and  presented  to  the  class.  The  class 
should  usually  he  examined^,  on  what  has  been  read  to  them. 

Reading  for  pupils. 

South  America   A.  B.  C. 


Europe   A.  B.  C. 

Geography  of  the  British  Isles  MacM. 

King's  Geography  Eeaders,  Book  Yl  L.  &  S. 

Modern  Europe   Silver 

Northern  Europe   Ginn 

Footprints  of  Travel  Ginn 

Boyhood  in  Norway  Scribners 

Eighth  Yeae. 


I.  Thorough  review  of  the  physical  geography  of  the 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  grades,  comprising: 

1.  (1  week.)  Soil. 

2.  (2  weeks.)    The  glacial  period  and  its  effects. 

3.  (2  weeks.)    Rivers  and  river  valleys. 

4.  (1  week.)    Lakes,  the  ocean,  and  coast  lines. 

5.  (2  weeks.)    The  air  and  the  ocean,  and  their  currents. 

6.  (1  week.)    Rainfall,  storms,  and  climate. 

7.  (1  week.)  The  movements  of  the  earth — the  earth  in 
space. 

8.  (1  week.)    Light  and  heat  zones. 

9.  (2  weeks.)    Latitude,  longitude,  and  time. 

II.    Asia,  Africa,  and  Australasia — intensive  study. 

1.  (2  weeks.)  Asiatic  Turkey,  Persia,  and  the  Anglo- 
Russian  buffer  states. 

2.  (3  weeks.)    The  Indian  Empire. 

3.  (3  weeks.)    The  Chinese  Empire  and  Siberia. 

4.  (2  weeks.)    Japan  and  Korea. 

5.  (2  weeks.)  Africa. 

6.  (2  wrecks.)  Australia. 

7.  (2  weeks.)  The  oceanic  islands  of  (a)  the  Pacific,  (b) 
the  Atlantic. 


72 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Ill  (7  weeks).  General  survey  of  world  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  trade  relations  of  each  country  with  the  United 
States. 

See  preliminary  notes  and  notes  on  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 


years. 

Weather  record  daily. 
Current  events  daily. 
Geographical  themes. 

Reading  for  pupils. 

Asia  A.  B.  C. 

Reader  in  Physical  Geography  Longmans 

Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea  Silver 

Australia,  Our  Colonies  and  other  Islands  of  the  Sea 

  A.  B.  C. 

Life  in  Asia  Silver 

Two  Girls  in  China  Silver 

Views  in  Africa  Silver 

Books  far  teachers  of  geography. 


A  Teacher's  Manual  of  Geography,  McMurry 


  MacM. 

Complete  Geography,  Tarr  and  McMurry  

  MacM. 

Commercial  Geography,  Adams  Appleton 

Lessons  in  Home  Geography,  McMurry  MacM. 

Xew  Physical  Geography,  Tarr  MacM. 

Special  Method  in  Geography,  McMurry.  .  .  .MacM. 
Stoddard's  Lectures. 

Teacher's  Manual  of  Geography,  Redway ....  Heath 

Topics  in  Geography,  Nichols..  Heath 

The  World's  Great  Farm,  Gaye  MacM. 

Physical  Geography,  Davis  Ginn 

The  Story  of  Our  Continent,  Shaler  Ginn 

Type  Studies  in  the  Geography  of  the  L^nited  States, 
McMurry   MacM. 


CHAPTEE  X. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

The  laws  of  New  Hampshire^  chapter  92,  section  6,  require 
that  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  effects  of  narcotics  and  stimulants  upon  the  human 
system,  shall  be  given  in  all  graded  schools  above  the  pri- 
mary. 

The  following  outline  is  given  to  indicate  the  scope  and 
method  of  treatment  in  each  of  the  four  years  of  the  gram- 
mar school  program.  It  is  presumed,  however,  that  suitable 
text-books  will  be  selected.  The  department  recommends 
the  use  of  a  graded  series  of  texts  for  the  four  years  rather 
than  any  one  text.  The  Gulick  series,  Ginn,  is  one  of  the 
best. 

Provision  is  made  for  two  or  three  lessons  per  week 
throughout  the  four  years.  The  subject  is  a  good  elemen- 
tary science,  and,  in  addition  to  its  great  practical  value,  fur- 
nishes a  valuable  introduction  to  the  biological  sciences  of 
the  high  school. 

Teachers  and  school  boards  are  reminded  that  no  science 
can  be  properly  taught  except  on  the  basis  of  observation  and 
experiment.  For  this  purpose,  instruction  in  physiology  re- 
quires no  laboratory  and  no  expensive  material.  Nearly 
everything  from  a  bone  to  the  eye  and  even  the  brain  can  be 
illustrated  by  material  obtainable  from  the  butcher.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  zealous  teacher  should  be  wise  in  the  method 
of  illustrating,  and  especially  should  be  on  her  guard  against 
experiments  or  illustrations  beyond  the  power  of  pupils  to 
comprehend  and  assimilate. 

The  object  and  purpose  of  the  study  is  hygiene  rather  than 
anatomy  and  physiology.    The  pupils  should  be  taught  just 


73 


74 


PEYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


enough  of  the  last  two  to  enable  them  to  understand  the 
first.  Instruction  in  the  art  of  right  living  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  practical  duty  of  the  elementary  school. 

The  teacher  who  has  had  no  higher  courses  in  biology 
should  prepare  herself  by  the  careful  reading  of  Martin's 
Human  Body,  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  or  a  text  of  like  grade. 

From  the  hygienic  standpoint,  the  teacher  should  see  that 
her  name  is  on  the  mailing  list  for  bulletins  of  such  boards 
as  the  State  Board  of  Health.  She  will  also  find  the  entire 
Gulick  series  referred  to  above  to  be  most  useful  reading 
material;  also  "Preventable  Diseases/'  by  Woods  Hutchin- 
son, H.  M.  &  Co.,  which  ought  to  be  in  every  public  library; 
also  "Civics  and  Health,"  Allen,  Ginn. 

Teachers  in  all  years  and  at  all  times  should  hold  them- 
selves responsible  to  seize  opportunities  for  impressing  les- 
sons in  the  proper  use  and  care  of  the  body, — lessons  of  clean- 
liness, of  good  sanitation  at  home  and  at  school,  on  the  pre- 
vention of  colds,  etc.;  on  proper  position  and  carriage;  care 
of  the  teeth,  eyes,  and  ears.  The  practical  results  will  de- 
pend full  more  upon  the  hygienic  control  of  the  school  and 
the  teacher's  own  good  example  than  upon  the  regular  in- 
struction. For  instance,  the  tactful  and  persistent  teacher 
will  be  'able  not  only  to  teach  cleanliness,  care  of  teeth,  etc., 
but  also  to  secure  in  her  pupils  the  practice  of  these  desir- 
able personal  virtues.  Again,  a  lesson  on  fresh  air  is  lost 
if  given  in  a  stuffy  and  overheated  schoolroom,  which  a  little 
exercise  of  intelligence  and  industry  might  convert  into  a 
reasonably  suitable  room. 

Fifth  Y!ear. 

Tlie  sheleton.  Parts:  the  skull,  spine,  ribs,  bones  of  limbs; 
how  the  bones  are  joined  together;  how  the  joints  work. 

The  muscles.  Use;  connection  to  bones;  action — by  con- 
traction and  relaxation;  difference  between  muscles  and  fat. 

Digestion.  The  purpose  of  digestion;  the  course  of  food 
after  it  enters  the  mouth  and  until  it  is  taken  up  into  the 
blood,  explaining  the  position  and  appearance  of  mouth,  gul- 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


75 


let,  stomach,  and  intestines, — without  going  into  details  of 
processes. 

The  Mood.  What  the  blood  is  for;  the  different  kinds  of 
blood  vessels  and  how  the  appearance  of  the  blood  in  them 
varies. 

Respiration.  The  lungs  and  their  appearance;  the  great 
diaphragm  muscle;  how  we  breathe;  why  we  breathe;  the 
windpipe  and  its  relation  to  the  gullet. 

Hygiene.  Care  of  the  teeth;  bodily  cleanliness  and  why: 
the  sitting  posture;  lacing  and  tight  shoes;  fresh  air; 
tobacco,  alcohol,  tea,  coffee,  bad  food  and  bad  cooking,  and 
their  effect;  bad  effects  of  many  patent  medicines. 

Sixth  Ye;ar. 

The  skeleton.  Eeview  and  teach  names  of  principal  bones. 
Structure  of  bones  and  repair  of  broken  bones. 

The  muscles.  Eeview.  Structure;  appearance;  show  com- 
position by  dissecting  a  piece  of  lean  meat;  identification  and 
use  of  principal  muscles;  injuries, — sprains,  bruises,  etc. 

Digestion.  Eeview.  The  principal  digestive  organs  and 
their  secretions;  the  salivary  glands;  the  stomach;  the  liver 
and  pancreas;  the  intestines. 

The  hlood.  Eeview.  The  heart  as  a  great  pump;  the  con- 
nection of  the  veins  and  arteries  with  the  heart  (do  not  teach 
action  of  the  heart). 

Respiration.  Eeview.  The  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the 
lungs  and  between  the  lungs  and  heart;  pure  and  impure 
blood  and  what  makes  the  change  from  one  to  the  other. 
The  action  of  the  kidneys  and  skin. 

Hygiene.  Eeview.  Bodily  conditions  which  invite  dis- 
ease; how  diseases  spread;  the  micro-organisms  and  how  they 
increase  and  are  disseminated;  how  killed;  vaccination  and 
antitoxins;  colds  and  their  prevention;  pneumonia;  tubercu- 
losis; typhoid  fever;  scarlet  fever.    (See  also  Xature  Study.) 

Emergencies.  What  to  do  in  cases  of  burns,  blazing  cloth- 
ing, drowning  accidents,  etc. 


76 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


Seveinth  Year. 

The  skeleton.  Eeview  of  work  of  preceding  grades.  Con- 
nective tissue;  cartilage  and  tendons;  the  lubrication  of  joints 
and  connections;  injuries  to  tendons^  etc. 

The  muscles.  Eeview  of  work  of  preceding  grades.  Iden- 
tification and  use  of  principal  muscles — extend  the  list  to 
perhaps  a  dozen  or  fifteen;  cultivation  of  strength  and  meth- 
ods of  exercise. 

Digestion.  Eeview  of  work  of  preceding  grades.  The  ac- 
tion of  the  several  digestive  organs  upon  the  food. 

The  Mood.  Eeview  of  work  of  preceding  grades.  The  cir- 
culation and  action  of  the  heart. 

Respiratio7i.  Eeview  of  work  of  preceding  grades.  The 
waste  given  off  by  respiration;  pure  and  impure  air  and  ef- 
fects of  each.  Let  the  class  determine  the  cubical  contents 
of  the  schoolroom  and  determine  whether  or  not  there  is 
sufficient  air  for  each  pupil. 

The  nerves.    Structure  and  uses. 

Hygiene.  Eeview.  Sanitation:  study  of  the  local  and  state 
boards  of  health  and  their  work.  Have  the  class  find  out  all 
they  can  about  the  organization  of  boards  of  health,  public 
health  laws,  what  local  board  is  doing,  and,  if  possible,  get 
member  of  local  board  to  talk  to  school; — public  water  sys- 
tems and  their  management — let  the  class  find  out  if  the 
local  system  is  likely  to  be  contaminated  and  secure  a  talk 
from  some  representative  of  the  local  water  system  if  pos- 
sible— ;  private  water  supply  and  relation  to  health  of  house- 
hold; milk  supply  and  contaminated  milk  as  a  source  of  some 
diseases;  sewerage  systems,  both  public  and  private;  safe  dis- 
posal of  sewage;  impure  foods  and  drugs  as  disease  spread- 
ers; pure  food  and  drugs  laws;  mosquitoes  and  other  insects 
and  animals  as  conveyers  of  disease,  and  their  control. 

Emergencies.  Eeview  sixth  year  work,  and  so  far  as  pos- 
sible drill  the  class  in  imaginary  cases. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


77 


Eighth  Year. 

General  review  of  work  of  jDreceding  years  on  skeleton,  mus- 
cles, blood,  digestion,  and  respiration. 

The  eye.  Its  coats  and  use  of  each;  its  nervous  connections. 
Defects  of  eyesight, — their  causes  and  manifestations.  Proper 
care  of  the  eyes. 

The  ear.    Its  structure  and  action.    Care  of  the  ear. 

The  nose,  the  tongue,  and  tJie  skin  as  the  seat  of  tactile  sense. 

The  'brain  and  spinal  cord.  Superficial  appearance  and 
larger  details  of  structure.  The  uses  of  brain  and  cord  as 
seats  of  thought,  habit,  instinct,  etc.  Very  little  which  is 
known  of  the  central  nervous  system  is  within  the  compre- 
hension of  common  school  pupils. 

Emergencies.    Review  and  drill  as  in  seventh  year. 

Hygiene.  Review  of  last  three  years.  Cooking:  food  con- 
stituents and  their  values;  proper  methods  of  cooking  and 
common  improper  methods;  harmful  foods  and  harmful  cook- 
ing. Household  sanitation:  elimination  of  dust;  proper  ven- 
tilation; care  of  sleeping  rooms;  care  of  food  closets,  refrig- 
erators, etc.;  healthful  and  unhealthful  location;  care  of  cel- 
lar; disposal  of  waste. 


CHAPTEE  XL 


HISTORY. 

The  plan  of  the  history  course  may  be  summarized  as  a  spi- 
ral of  five  parts,  each  adapted  to  the  dominant  interest  of  the 
child  rather  than  to  a  logical  method  of  sequence.  The  work 
of  the  first  five  years  contemplates  the  laying  of  a  broad  basis, 
both  psychologically  and  historically,  for  later  historical  studv. 
It  is  not  expected  that  the  work  of  these  years  will  be  his- 
torically systematic,  nor  that  at  any  moment  the  pupils  will 
necessarily  be  able  to  account  for  dates  or  other  facts.  The 
emphasis  is  upon  early  life,  and  the  work  will  be  considered 
successful  just  in  proportion  as  it  arouses  the  interest  of  chil- 
dren.   A  sketch  of  the  plan  is  here  given: 

1.  Years  I  and  II.    Myth  and  hero  tales  of  all  lands. 

2.  Years  III  and  IV.  Eea dings  in  early  colonial  and 
pioneer  history. 

3.  Year  V.    Eeadings  in  ancient  history. 

■i.  Year  YI.  More  careful  reading  of  (a)  American  his- 
tory (b)  English  history. 

5.  Years  YII  and  VIII.  Intensive  study  of  American 
history. 

Importance  of  history. 

History  is  one  of  the  most  important  courses  in  the  pro- 
gram of  studies.  Upon  it  are  based  all  the  later  studies 
which  have  to  do  with  the  understanding  of  man  in  his  social 
and  political  relations;  and  especially  is  it,  more  than  any 
other  formal  study  of  the  common  school,  the  basis  of  an 
understanding  of  tlie  duties  of  citizenship.  School  boards 
are  advised  that  ample  time  and  apparatus  should  be  given 
to  history,  even  if  other  subjects  suti'er. 


78 


HISTORY. 


79 


Apparatus. 

The  apparatus  of  history  should  include:  (1)  sufficient  his- 
torical supplementary  reading  and  texts;  (2)  historical  maps; 
(3)  photographs  and  lantern  slides,  if  possible,  of  historical 
pictures,  persons,  and  places;  (-i)  historical  material,  such  as 
old  deeds,  letters,  and  other  documents,  and  old  implements 
and  furniture.    Much  of  it  can  be  collected  by  the  teacher. 

Dramatization. 

In  years  I  to  VI,  especially,  children  are  fond  of  acting. 
This  characteristic  is  utilized  by  successful  teachers  in  the 
dramatization  of  historical  scenes,  to  the  delight  and  profit  of 
pupils.  An  historical  event  capable  of  such  dramatization 
probably  possesses  a  greatly  deepened  meaning  for  the  chil- 
dren who  take  part  in  the  acting. 

Suitable  events  or  episodes  for  dramatization  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Columbus:  his  boyhood;  the  convent  episode;  his  journey 
and  visit  at  court;  the  voyages  in  discovery;  his  return. 

Madam  Yeardley  and  the  visit  of  Indians. 

Church-going  on  Christmas  Day  when  Madam  Yeardley 
took  the  Indian. 

Puritan  schools. 

Puritan  churches. 

Priscilla  and  John  Alden. 

Miles  Standish  and  the  Indians. 

Paul  Eevere. 

Declaration  of  Independence. 

A  good  variation  of  dramatization  would  be: 

(1)  Describing  historical  people  and  having  children  guess 
who  they  are. 

(2)  Drawing  pictures  of  historical  events  or  persons  on  the 
board  for  children  to  guess. 

(3)  Going  to  places — what  historic  interest  to  find. 

First  and  Secoxd  Years. 

Story  telling. 

See  Impressional  Language.    The  history  of  these  years 


80 


HISTORY. 


will  all  be  taken  in  correlation  with  language  and  on  language 
time. 

The  stories  should  deal  mainly  with  primitive  people,  or 
rather  with  people  living  under  somewhat  primitive  condi- 
tions, as  did  the  New  England  forefathers.  Stories  of  In- 
dians and  the  childhood  of  heroes  are  also  excellent  material. 

The  succession  of  holidays  furnishes  a  good  outline  and 
basis  of  work  in  both  these  years,  as  follows: 

September  and  October — Columbus  and  the  Indians. 

November — Thanksgiving  and  the  Pilgrims. 

January  and  February — Stories  of  Washington,  Lincoln, 
and  Franklin. 

March  to  June — Memorial  Day  and  Flag  Day.  Stories  of 
Eevolutionary  heroes  and  Fourth  of  July. 

In  these  years,  the  teacher  should  make  large  use  of  black- 
board sketches  to  illustrate  stories. 

The  children  will  reproduce  stories  orally.  They  should 
also  be  allowed  to  illustrate  stories  by  paper  cutting,  draw- 
ing, and  pasting.  Their  work  will  of  course  be  crude,  but  its 
educational  value  is  none  the  less  for  that. 

Select  scenes  from  stories,  occasionally,  to  be  acted  by  chil- 
dren. 

Material  for  stories  will  be  found  in  the  readers  listed  in 
the  chapter  on  reading,  but  the  teacher  will  find  also  a  sup- 
ply in  the  public  library  and  especially  in  old  traditions  of 
the  village  or  city  in  which  she  teaches.  There  is  no  objec- 
tion, but  rather  an  advantage,  in  selecting  from  second,  third, 
and  fourth  readers,  pieces  for  story  telling,  which  the  chil- 
dren will  later  on  read. 

Third  axd  Fourth  Years. 

Stonj  telling. 

Continued  as  in  preceding  years.  Use  language  time. 
Stories  furnish  material  for  oral  and  written  reproduction,  as 
does  also  the 

Historical  supplementary  reading. 

See  also  chapter  on  reading.  The  history  here  of  course 
uses  reading  time. 


HISTORY. 


81 


The  dominant  interest  still  is  in  biography  and  talcs  of 
pioneer  life. 

Beading  material. 

History  Readers  for  Elementary  Schools.  .  .  .MacM. 
Great  Americans  for  Little  Americans.  . .  .A.  B.  C. 

Colonial  Children   Heath 

Stories  of  the  Eed  Children  Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

Child  Life  Readers  MacM. 

Children  of  the  Wigwam  /.  . .  .Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

American  Pioneers   Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

Boyhood  of  Famous  Americans.  .....  .Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

America's  Story,  I  and  II  Heath 

Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure.  .  .A.  B,  C. 

Stories  of  Pioneer  Life  Heath 

Explorations  and  Discoveries  Heath 

Stories  of  the  Indians  of  Xew  England  Silver 

Four  Great  Americans  A.  B.  C. 

Colonial  Life  in  Xew  Hampshire  Ginn 

Fifth  Year. 

The  history  of  the  fifth  year  will  be  carried  on  according 
to  the  same  principles  as  in  earlier  years,  through  the  use  of 
supplementary  readers  and  by  way  of  feeding  childish  inter- 
est rather  than  requiring  serious  study.  The  field  of  inter- 
est, however,  is  the  region  of  antiquity, — Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Roman. 

The  reading  period  will  be  used  for  history. 
History  reading  will  furnish  material  for  themes  and  for 
drawing. 

Dramatization  of  historical  scenes  as  in  previous  years. 

Historical  reading. 

Old  Greek  Stories  A.  B.  C. 

Hawthorne's  Wonder  Book  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Stories  of  the  Bible,  II  and  III  Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

Ten  Boys  on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago  Ginn 

Story  of  the  Greeks  A.  B.  C. 


82 


HISTORY. 


Story  of  the  Romans  A.  B.  C. 

Story  of  Cassar  A.  B.  C. 

Achilles  and  Hector  R.  M.  &  Co. 

Old  Testament  Stories  H.  M.  &  Co. 

Historical  and  Biographical  Narratives.  . .  .A.  B.  C. 

Sixth  Yeiak. 

The  work  of  the  sixth  year  will  be  a  transition  between  the 
work  of  the  preceding  and  that  of  the  succeeding  years.  It 
will  be  mainly  reading  still  and  conducted  on  reading  time, 
but  as  the  books  are  read  they  should  be  discussed  in  class 
and  the  pupils  should  be  expected  to  retain  a  knowledge  of 
the  main  events, — their  order,  time,  and  relationship. 

First  half -year. 
American  history. 

Beading  and  text-hoolcs. 

Montgomery's  Beginners'  American  History.  . Grinn 

Tappan's  Our  Country's  Story  H.  M.  &  Co. 

McMaster's  Primary  History  of  the  United  States.  . 
 '  A.  B.  C. 

Second  half-year. 
English  history. 

Reading  and  text-hooks. 

Blaisdell's  Stories  from  English  History  Ginn 

Guerber's  Story  of  the  English  A.  B.  C. 

Warren's  The  Story  of  the  English  Heath 

Seventh  and  Eighth  Years. 

The  study  of  United  States  history  throughout  the  two 
years. 

Teachers  and  school  boards  are  warned  that  history,  like 
geography,  must  be  taught  as  a  collection  of  scries  of  cause 
and  effect  to  be  understood,  not  as  a  collection  of  facts  to  be 
memorized.  Children  in  these  years  who  have  had  an  ade- 
quate basis  of  extensive  historical  reading  are  now  prepared 


HISTORY. 


83 


to  understand  history.  The  purpose  of  history  teaching  is 
now  (a)  the  deA^elopment  of  the  power  of  studying  history,  (b) 
an  intelligent  appreciation  of  our  country's  institutions. 

History  in  these  years,  as  in  all  the  preceding  years,  should 
be  closely  correlated  with  composition.  (See  chapter  on  Lan- 
guage.) The  pupils  should  frequently  be  given  historical 
topics  to  work  up  in  the  public,  or  school,  library;  to  be 
brought  to  the  teacher  in  outline  and  noted  for  criticism;  and 
finally  to  be  written  up  and  read  to  the  class.  (See  similar 
note  on  Geography.) 

It  will  be  necessary  to  select  and  follow  some  good  text  in 
history  as  the  basis  of  the  two  years'  w^ork,  but  in  order  to 
state  the  minimum  requirement,  and  to  suggest  the  right  pro- 
portioning of  topics,  the  following  outline  is  given: 

Seventh  year. 

I.  (4  weeks.)    Period  of  discovery  and  exploration. 
European  conditions  in  the  15th  century. 
Columbus:  life,  purpose,  results. 

Other  explorers:  their  motives  and  accomplishments. 

II.  (6  weeks.)    Colonial  period. 
Study  the  following  types  of  colonies: 

1.  Virginia  type:  settlements;  representative  government; 
royal  governors;  character  of  colonists. 

2.  New  York  type:  settlements;  Dutch  rule;  royal  gov- 
ernors; relations  with  neighbors  and  Indians. 

3.  Pennsylvania  type;  settlements;  proprietary  govern- 
ment; relations  with  neighbors  and  Indians. 

4.  Massachusetts  type:  settlements;  theocratic  govern- 
ment; sub-colonies  of  Massachusetts;  growth  of  representative 
government;  relations  with  mother  country;  relations  with 
Indians. 

5.  French-Canadian  type:  settlements;  paternal  govern- 
ment and  schemes  of  the  king;  relations  with  Indians;  con- 
trasts with  four  preceding  types. 

III.  (4  weeks.)  Struggle  between  France  and  England 
for  a  continent. 

The  inevitableness  of  the  conflict. 


84 


HISTORY. 


Relations  of  each  to  Indians. 
Attitudes  of  the  several  colonies. 
Eeasons  for  English  victory. 
Effect  of  war  npon  the  colonies. 

IV.  (12  weeks.)    Revolutionary  period. 
Causes  leading  up  to  Revolution. 

Attitude  of  America  as  expressed  by  Patrick  Henry  and 
Samuel  Adams. 

Attitude  of  sympathizers  in  England  as  expressed  by 
Edmund  Burke  and  the  Earl  of  Chatham. 

Attitude  of  George  III. 

First  Continental  Congress. 

Washington:  his  record  and  character. 

Independence:  reasons  and  meaning. 

Evacuation  of  Boston  and  New  England. 

British  attempt  to  isolate  New  England — White  Plains  to 
Saratoga. 

French  alliance. 

Valley  Forge  and  its  lesson  of  endurance. 

The  navy:  Paul  Jones. 

Articles  of  confederation. 

War  in  the  South. 

Yorktown.. 

Terms  of  peace  treaty. 

V.  (10  weeks.)    The  Critical  period. 
Not  one  nation  but  thirteen. 
Weakness  of  the  confederation. 
Commercial  warfare;  paper  money. 
Constitutional  convention. 
(Compromises. 

The  men  of  the  convention. 
Eiglilli  year. 

W.  (2  weeks.)  Rapid  review  of  salient  points  of  seventh 
year  work. 

Vil.    (12  weeks.)    First  period  of  expansion. 
Industrial  and  commercial  growth — early  inventions. 
Foiii-inna  Purchase:  significance  and  value. 


HISTORY. 


85 


Origin,  principles,  and  growth  of  the  political  parties. 
Causes  and  results  of  War  of  1812. 
Monroe  Doctrine. 
Growth  of  the  great  West. 
Nullitieation.    State  rights. 

The  slavery  question,  beginning  with  the  constitutional 
convention. 

The  beginning  of  the  end  of  the  Indian. 

Causes  and  results  of  Mexican  War. 

Eelation  of  results  to  the  slaver}^  question. 

Discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  effect  on  transconti- 
nental transportation  and  on  emigration  from  Eastern  States. 

The  slavery  question  in  the  fifties. 

The  crisis. 

VIII.  (10  weeks.)    Period  of  disruption. 
Effect  of  Lincoln's  election  on  southern  sentiment. 
South's  reason  for  secession. 

North's  reasons  for  resisting  secession. 

Union  plan  of  war:  (a)  blockade  of  southern  ports;  (b) 
opening  of  Mississippi;  (c)  capture  of  Eichmond. 

Study  the  war  as  a  series  of  campaigns,  requiring  the  class 
to  see  the  object  of  each  campaign,  and  the  significance  of  the 
principal  battles. 

Emancipation  and  thirteenth  amendment. 

Eesults  of  the  war:  settled:  (a)  state  rights  and  secession; 
(b)  slavery  question. 

Effects  of  the  war  (a)  on  North;  (b)  on  South. 

IX.  (12  weeks.)  Eeconstruction  and  second  period  of  ex- 
pansion. 

Plan  of  reconstruction. 
Fourteenth  and  fifteenth  amendments. 
Effect  of  reconstruction  period  on  the  South. 
Financial  condition  of  United  States. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine  and  its  application  since  the  Civil 
War. 

Territorial  expansion  since  the  Civil  War. 

Current  events  should  be  a  part  of  the  daily  work  of  the 


86 


HISTORY. 


schoolroom.  They  are  history  in  the  process  of  making,  are 
usually  to  be  interpreted  by  historical  reference,  and  often 
illustrate  some  phase  of  historical  study. 

Beading  for  teachers. 

The  teacher  of  history  must  read,  read,  read,  a  long  way 
beyond  and  outside  of  the  vision  of  her  pupils.  She  should 
own  a  few  substantial  treatises,  both  histories  and  books  on 
teaching  history,  and  should  read  extensively  the  public  li- 
brary list,  magazine  articles,  etc.  A  suggestive  list  is  here- 
with given.  The  names  of  those  books  which  every  teacher 
ought  to  own  are  marked  *. 

*Special  Method  in  History,  McMurry  MacM. 

*  Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History,  Channing 

&  Hart   Ginn 

The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics,  Bourne  

 /   Longmans 

How  to  Study  and  Teach  History,  Hinsdale  

  Appleton 

Eeport  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  N.  E.  A..  .MacM. 
The  Discovery  of  America. 
*The  Beginnings  of  New  England. 
Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors. 
The  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies. 
New  France  and  New  England. 
*The  Critical  Period  of  American  History. 
The  American  Revolution,  John  Fiske.  .H.  M.  &  Co. 
Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World. 
La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great  West. 
California  and  the  Oregon  Trail. 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  Parkman.  .Little,  Brown  &  Co. 
American  History  told  by  Contemporaries,  Hart.. 

  MacM. 

^Students'  History  of  the  United  States,  Channing 

  MacM. 

The  Winning  of  the  West,  Roosevelt  

 G.  Putnam's  Sons 


HrSTORY. 


*An  Historical  Geograj^hy  of  the  United  States, 


MaeConn   Silver 

Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  Earle  MacM. 

Customs  and  Fashions  of  Old  Xew  England,  Earle 

  Scribners 

Costumes  of  Colonial  Times,  Earle  Scribners 

Colonial  Era,  Fisher  Scribners 

The  Story  of  the  Eevolution,  Lodge  Scribners 

Nature  and  Man  in  America,  Shaler  Scribners 


American  Statesmen  Series  H.  M.  &  Co. 


CHAPTER  XIL 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 

The  study  of  civil  government  is  scheduled  for  the  eighth 
year.  Previously  to  that  time,  the  pupil  should  have  acquired 
a  considerable  knowledge  of  government  from  studies  in  geog- 
raphy and  history,  and  from  supplementary  reading. 

The  Study  of  the  eighth  year  would  best  he  based  upon  a 
ouitable  text,  although  this  is  not  essential.  The  outline 
which  folloAvs  is  given  for  the  guidance  of  teachers  who  have 
no  text,  and  also  for  guidance  in  method  of  treatment  in 
cases  where  a  text  is  used.  In  either  case,  schoolroom  w^ork 
must  be  supplemented  by  visits  to  the  seat  of  government 
wherever  possible, — to  the  selectmen's  office,  to  town  and 
school  district  meetings,  to  the  county  court-house,  the  city 
hall,  the  capitol  at  Concord.  Wherever  feasible,  the  class 
should  be  taken  to  meetings  of  court,  city  government,  and 
the  general  court.  Whenever  the  teacher  or  any  pupil  has 
visited  Washington,  a  full  account  should  be  given  to  the 
class.  Civil  government  is  closely  connected  with  the  history 
of  the  seventh  and  eighth  years. 

Apparatus. 

The  apparatus  of  civil  government,  beside  texts,  is  public 
documents  and  reports  of  all  kinds,  and  especially  current 
events  having  to  do  w^ith  affairs  of  government, — local,  state, 
and  national. 

Laljoraiory  ivork  in  civil  government  is  tlie  reduction  of 
functions  of  government  to  schoolroom  illustration  and  ex- 
perience. Wherever  possible  the  class  should  be  organized  as 
(a)  town  meeting  and  town  officers,  (b)  city  government,  (c) 
moot  court  and  county  officers,  (d)  state  government.  The 
capable  teacher  can  accomplish  great  good  by  correlating  her 
civil  government  and  school  management.    She  may  organize 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 


89 


the  school  on  the  basis  of  self-government,  allowing  pupils  to 
make  laws,  elect  officers,  and  enforce  their  laws — subject  to 
veto  power. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  study  of  civil  government  be 
based  largely  on  New  Hampshire  conditions,  with  but  slight 
reference  to  historical  development, — except  in  the  case  of 
the  national  government, — or  to  variations  in  other  states. 
Such  references  will  be  more  likely  to  confuse  than  to  help 
the  pupil's  understanding  at  this  stage. 

I.    (12  weeks.)    Local  government. 

1.  The  town:  what  the  town  government  does  for  the 
people;  appropriation  of  money;  assessment  and  collection  of 
taxes;  election  and  duties  of  town  officers;  preservation  of 
order  and  administration  of  justice  in  the  town. 

2.  The  city:  what  the  city  government  does  for  the 
people;  representative  government;  election  of  councils, — • 
caucuses,  etc.;  appropriation  of  money;  assessment  and  col- 
lection of  taxes;  election  or  appointment  of  city  officers;  du- 
ties of  several  departments;  preservation  of  order  and  admin- 
istration of  justice  in  the  city. 

3.  The  school  district  in  Xew  Hampshire:  how  it  differs 
from  town  and  city;  its  revenues,  how  derived  and  how  ex- 
pended; its  officers. 

II.  (2  weeks.)    County  government. 

What  the  county  does  for  the  people  and  why  we  need 
counties  in  addition  to  local  government. 

The  county  revenues — how  derived  and  how  expended. 
The  county  officers,  their  election  and  duties. 

III.  (10  weeks.)    The  state  government. 
Study  of  the  constitution  of  New  Hampshire. 

(a)  The  sources  of  authority  of  all  government  within  the 
state;  (b)  what  the  state  can  do  better  than  towns,  cities,  or 
counties. 

Sources  of  revenues  and  appropriation  of  the  same. 

The  state  government — how  chcsen  and  duties  and  powers: 
(a)  general  court;  (b)  governor  and  council;  (c)  departments 
of  state  government;  (d)  state  courts  and  their  jurisdiction. 


90 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 


IV.    (12  weeks.)    The  national  government. 

Study  of  the  United  States  constitution. 

Eelation  of  national  to  state  governments. 

What  the  United  States  can  do  better  than  towns  or  cities, 
counties  or  states. 

The  national  revenues — whence  derived  and  how  appro- 
priated. 

The  national  government, — how  chosen,  duties  and  powers: 
(a)  congress;  (b)  president  and  cabinet;  (c)  departments  of 
national  government;  (d)  the  United  States  courts  and  their 
jurisdiction. 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 


MUSIC. 

It  is  not  the  mission  of  the  music  of  the  public  schools  to 
make  musicians  any  more  than  it  is  the  mission  of  reading 
poetry  to  make  poets.  Music  is  taught  precisely  as  any  other 
subject  is  taught,  primarily  for  its  value  in  rounding  out  the 
development  of  the  educated  man  or  woman. 

A  competent  special  teacher  and  supervisor  of  music  is 
desirable  but  not  essential.  Xearly  every  teacher  can  sing 
some,  and,  since  technical  excellence  is  not  a  matter  of  pri- 
mary importance,  every  teacher  should  do  what  she  can.  Ex- 
cellent results  have  sometimes  been  obtained  by  teachers  who 
have  had  an  understanding  of  the  elements  of  music,  but  who 
could  not  sing  at  all. 

First  Grade. 

Songs  by  rote,  without  any  sort  of  representation,  develop 
the  sense  of  tonality  and  rhythm  through  the  use  of  melodic 
phrases  sung  with  sol  fa  syllables  and  with  words.  Later  in 
the  year,  if  it  seems  advisable,  add  to  this,  for  eye-training, 
the  use  of  the  staff,  with  notes  to  represent  melodies,  with 
the  keynote  in  different  positions  on  the  staff.  Eote  singing 
and  ear  training  should  be  the  most  important  feature  of  the 
year's  work. 

Second  Grade. 

Rote  song  work  should  be  prominent  throughout  the  year. 
Eeview  work  of  the  first  year.  Individual  and  class  drill  in 
singing  melodic  phrases  by  syllables  and  words  from  dicta- 
tion work.  Staff  work  in  different  key  positions  for  eye 
training.  Eeading  simple  melodies  from  the  chart  or  black- 
board or  from  the  book  if  thought  desirable. 

91 


92 


MUSIC. 


Third  Grade. 

Eote  singing.  Eeview  all  previous  work  in  staff  drill  and 
dictation.  Promote  eye  training  by  a  study  of  the  staff  by 
lines  and  spaces  in  all  keys.  Individual  proficiency  in  per- 
ception of  the  function  of  the  staff  degrees,  as  representing 
the  tones  of  the  scale,  should  be  secured.  Review  the  note 
reading  work  of  second  year  briefly.  Begin  the  use  of  two 
tones  to  one  beat  and  practice  until  class  can  sing  two  tones 
to  one  beat  from  the  notes  during  the  latter  part  of  the  year. 
Sight  singing  and  rhythm  practice.  Special  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  development  of  the  sense  of  rhythm  these  first 
three  years. 

Fourth  Grade. 

The  end  of  the  fourth  year  should  find  the  children  able 
to  read  simple  music  at  sight  in  any  major  key.  They  should 
be  able  to  sing  sharp  four,  sharp  five,  sharp  two,  and  flat 
seven.  They  should  be  able  to  sing  exercises  in  2-4,  3-4,  and 
4-4  measure  and  to  sing  readily  groups  of  tones  represented 
by  the  dotted  quarter  and  eighth  notes.  They  should  know 
the  names  of  the  notes  and  the  pitch  names.  The  ability  to 
read  music  should  be  utilized  by  the  singing  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  songs  wholly  or  partly  at  sight,  and  they  should  be 
able  to  sing  suitable  tM^o-part  melodies. 

Fifth  Grade. 

At  the  end  of  the  fifth  year  the  class  should  be  able  to 
sing  all  the  sharps  and  flats  from  the  tone  above  and  some 
of  the  flats  from  the  tone  below.  In  rhythm  they  should  be 
able  to  sing  at  sight  exercises  containing  the  dotted  eighth 
and  sixteenth  and  the  simple  forms  of  G-8  measure,  two  beats 
to  a  measure.  They  should  be  able  to  sing  two-part  melodies 
at  sight. 

Sixth  Grade. 

The  class  should  become  familiar  with  all  chromatic  tones, 
both  sharps  and  flats,  and  be  able  to  apply  syllables  to  any 


MUSIC. 


93 


melody  they  have  in  mind  from  memory.  They  should  use 
melodies  and  exercises  in  the  minor  mode  and  should  prac- 
tice the  different  forms  of  the  minor  scale.  They  should 
begin  three-part  singing.  Should  begin  writing  the  signatures 
of  the  major  keys  from  memory.  In  rhythm  they  should 
study  all  the  forms  found  in  6-8  measure^  two  beats  to  a 
measure.  Simple  songs  should  be  sung  at  sight  without  the 
use  of  syllables. 

Sevexth  Grade. 

The  class  should  use  chromatic  tones  with  facility.  They 
should  sing  readily  in  three  parts.  They  should  become  fa- 
miliar with  the  different  forms  of  the  minor  scale,  their  rela- 
tion to  the  major  scales,  and  write  them  with  their  proper 
signatures.  In  rhythm  they  should  be  able  to  read  readily 
all  the  forms  found  in  6-8  measure,  two  beats  to  a  measure, 
to  sing  four  tones  to  a  beat  and  should  study  syncopation. 

Eighth  Grade. 

The  singing  of  standard  songs,  the  study  of  composers' 
lives  and  introductory  history  and  musical  literature  should 
be  the  leading  work.  The  technical  work  previously  studied 
should  be  reviewed  and  be  enlarged  upon  if  it  seems  desir- 
able. 

KoTE. — Special  attention  is  called  to  the  value  of  written 
work  in  all  grades  above  the  first.  Small  beginnings  in  orig- 
inal melody  may  be  made  in  the  primary  grades,  later  scale 
progressions,  intervals,  phrases  of  songs  learned  and  melodies 
from  dictation.  In  upper  grades  original  melodies  set  to 
simple  couplets  and  stanzas.  In  all  grades  the  voices  of  the 
children  should  be  light  in  quality,  smooth  and  free  from 
harshness.  All  the  singing  should  be  intelligent,  with  good 
phrasing  and  proper  attention  to  the  sentiment  of  the  words. 

Standard  FA:\riLiAR  Songs. 

The  teaching  of  the  standard  familiar  hymns,  national,  pa- 
triotic, and  folk  songs  may  be  begun  in  the  third  year  (or  ear- 


94 


MUSIC. 


lier)  and  carried  forward  through  succeeding  years  until  all 
the  best  of  such  songs  are  known  by  each  child,  and  he  is 
able  to  sing  them  from  memory. 

Following  is  a  list  of  standard  familiar  songs  which  each 
(diild  should  know  by  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  year. 

Hymns  general  in  cliaracter. 

"Heavenly  Father,  Sovereign  Lord.'' 

"Come,  thou  Almighty  King." 

"0,  Paradise.'' 

"Jerusalem  the  Golden." 

"Portuguese  Hymn." 

"God  Ever  Glorious." 

"Abide  With  Me." 

"Onward,  Christian  Soldiers." 

"Praise  the  Lord." 

Chrisfnias  hymns. 

"It  Came  Upon  the  Midnight  Clear." 
"Hark,  the  Herald  Angels  Sing." 
"Holy  Night,  Silent  Night." 

Naticnal  and  patriotic. 
"America." 

"Battle  Hymn  of  the  Eepublic." 
"Star  Spangled  Banner." 
"Red,  White,  and  Blue." 
"Rally  Round  the  Flag." 
"Tenting  Tonight." 
"Marching  Through  Georgia." 

American  Folk  Songs. 

"Old  Folks  at  Home." 

"Old  Kentucky  Home." 

"Massa's  in  the  Cold,  Cold  Ground." 

"Home,  Sweet  Home." 

"The  Dearest  Spot." 

Folk  Songs. 

"Blue  Bells  of  Scotland  " 
"Annie  Laurie." 


MUSIC. 


95 


"Loch  Lomond." 
"Auld  Lang  Syne." 

"The  Harp  That  Once  Through  Tara's  Halls.^ 

"Oft  in  the  Stilly  Night." 

"Last  Eose  of  Summer." 

"Watch  on  the  Rhine." 

"March  of  the  Men  of  Harlech." 

"All  Through  the  Xight." 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


DEAWIXG. 

Often  the  school  board  ma}^  find  it  advantageous  to  use  a 
text,  or  series  of  texts,  for  drawing.  In  that  case  tlie  outline 
thus  provided  may  be  followed.  The  outline  here  given  is, 
however,  detailed  to  such  an  extent  the  texts  will  usually  be 
found  unnecessary. 

The  object  of  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  the  public  schools 
is  not  to  make  artists,  but  rather  to  train  the  minds  of  all 
pupils  to  an  appreciation  and  enjo^anent  of  that  wdiich  1^= 
beautiful  in  form  and  color.  Its  practical  eft'ect  should  ap- 
pear in  a  heightened  good  taste  in  the  choice  of  wearing 
apparel,  furniture,  etc.,  and  in  the  erection  and  adornment 
of  homes. 

This  subject  is  peculiarly  susceptible  of  correlation  with 
others,  especially  with  nature,  history,  literature  and  compo- 
sition, geography  and  manual  training.  In  its  relation  to 
other  subjects  it  is  recreationary  and,  when  properly  taught, 
■it  should  enhance  the  value  of  results  in  rather  than  detract 
from  other  subjects. 

A  competent  special  teacher  should,  if  possible,  be  em- 
ployed; but  failing  that,  the  capable  regular  teacher  can  ac- 
complish important  results. 

The  outline  is  planned  under  the  following  heads: 

Natuke  Drawing. 

The  representation  of  plants,  animals,  and  the  human  fig- 
ure. 

Appropriate  rendering  with  pencil  and  brush,  in  neutrals 
and  color. 

Decorative  composition. 


96 


DRAWING. 


97 


Color. 

Elements,  schemes,  harmony. 
Mixing  of  pigments. 

Study  of  examples  of  harmonious  coloring. 
Application  in  representation  and  decorative  design. 

Pictorial  Drawixg. 

The  representation  of  the  appearance  of  objects. 
Perspective  principles. 

Eendering  with  pencil  and  brush,  in  neutrals  and  color. 

Study  of  pictures  by  masters. 

Composition. 

Structural  Drawing. 

Structural  elements:  geometric  figures,  solids,  abstract 
curves. 

Elements  of  beauty:  harmonious  relation,  refinement. 
Accurate  drawing  with  compasses  and  ruler. 
Study  of  examples  of  good  applied  design  in  common  ob- 
jects, as  to  fitness  to  purpose  and  refinement  of  form. 
Designing  of  common  objects. 

Deoorative  Drav^ing. 

Geometric,  floral,  and  symbolic  elements. 

Arrangement  to  secure  balance,  rhythm,  and  harmony. 

Study  of  examples  of  good  design. 

Designing  of  borders,  surfaces,  and  panels,  in  harmonious 
coloring. 

First  Year, 
september. 

Draw  sedges,  grasses,  and  fall  flowers,  as  aster  and  dande- 
lion, with  colored  pencil,  to  show  growth  and  movement. 

Practice  drawing  circles  and  straight  lines  on  the  black- 
board. 


98 


DRAWING. 


OCTOBEK. 

Draw  sedges,  grasses,  and  flowers,  in  circles  or  oblongs,  ])ro- 
pared  by  the  teacher,  and  add  initial  to  make  a  well-balanced 
arrangement. 

Study  the  spectrum  and  six  standard  colors,  E,  0,  Y,  G, 
B,  V,  and  collect  illustrations. 

Make  the  six-toned  spectrum  from  colored  paper. 

NOVEMBEK, 

Practice  with  brush,  and  fill  circles  with  washes  of  primary 
colors,  E,  Y,  B. 

Draw  fruits:  orange,  lemon,  banana;  and  vegetables:  potato, 
beet,  carrot,  with  colored  crayons. 

Make  drawings  suggestive  of  Thanksgiving. 

DECEMBEK. 

Practice  printing  capital  letters. 

Make  gift  cards  or  blotters  appropriate  to  the  season,  using 
drawings  or  mounted  pictures. 

Select  and  study  Christmas  pictures. 

JANUARY. 

Study  pictures  for  the  story. 

Examples  for  study: 

A  Piper  and  Pair  of  Nut  Crackers  Landseer 

The  Pet  Bird  Meyer  Von  Bremen 

The  Holy  Night  Correggio 

Practice  drawing  circles  and  squares  on  the  blackboard. 
Draw  objects  of  simple  proportions,  as  a  circular  fan,  a 
square  holder,  a  watch,  in  silhouette. 

FEBRUARY. 

Draw  common  animals,  as  rooster,  cat,  or  rabbit. 
Make  freehand  drawings  of  circle,  s(|nare,  and  oblong. 
Practice  in  the  use  of  the  ruler,  and  measurement  of  inches. 


DRAWING.  ^9 
MAKCir. 

^laVe  drawings  of  square  and  oblong,  using  the  ruler. 

Make  a  Japanese  flag  or  a  cold  wave  signal  from  colored 
paper,  and  mount  on  a  background. 

Make  a  badge  from  colored  paper,  and  mount  on  a  back- 
ground. 

APKIL. 

Study  stripe  patterns  in  contrasted  coloring,  from  collected 
illustrations. 

Practice  with  the  brush,  and  make  simple  stripe  patterns, 
using  a  standard  color. 

Begin  the  study  of  simple  spring  flowers  with  colored  pen- 
cil. 

MAY. 

Draw  simple  spring  flowers,  as  dandelion,  buttercup,  bluet. 
Study  borders  from  collected  illustrations  having  simple  evi- 
dent units. 

Practice  arrangement  and  spacing,  and  copy  simple  frets; 
first  laying  sticks,  afterward  drawing. 

JUNE. 

Make  borders  of  lines  or  simple  figures. 
Make  borders  suitable  for  handkerchiefs,  using  plant  details 
or  other  simple  forms  as  units. 

Second  Year. 

september. 

Draw  sedges,  grasses,  and  fall  flowers,  as  aster  and  dande- 
lion, or  seed  vessels,  as  rose  hip  or  poppy  head,  with  colored 
pencil  or  brush,  to  show  growth  and  movement. 

Practice  drawing  circles  and  straight  lines  on  the  black- 
board. 

OCTOBER. 

Draw  sedges,  grasses,  flowers  or  seed  vessels,  in  circles  or 
oblongs,  and  add  initials  to  make  a  well-balanced  arrange- 
ment. 


100 


DRAWING. 


Eeview  the  spectrum  standards. 

Study  gradation  of  color,  light  and  dark — key  tone,  tints 
and  shades,  and  arrange  collected  illustrations. 
Make  scales  of  standards  from  colored  paper. 

NOVEMBEE. 

Practice  with  the  brush,  and  fill  circles  with  flat  washes  of 
color,  mixing  primaries  to  make  secondaries — E  plus  Y  equals 
0;  Y  plus  B  equals  G;  B  plus  E  equals  V. 

Draw  fruits:  orange,  lemon,  banana,  apple,  pear,  plum;  and 
vegetables:  potato,  beet,  turnip,  carrot,  squash,  onion,  with 
colored  crayons,  studying  characteristic  markings  and  sug- 
gesting light  and  dark. 

Make  a  drawing  suggestive  of  Thanksgiving. 

DECEMBER. 

Practice  printing  alphabet  of  capitals. 

Make  gift  cards  or  blotters,  using  drawings  or  mounted  pic- 
tures, and  add  appropriate  greetings. 
Select  and  study  Christmas  pictures. 

JANUARY. 

Study  pictures  for  the  story. 

Examples  for  study: 

A  Fascinating  Tale  Mme.  Eonner 

A  Helping  Hand  Eenouf 

The  Children  of  the  Shell  MurilJo 

Practice  drawing  circles,  squares,  triangles,  and  oblongs,  on 
the  blackboard. 

Draw  common  objects,  as  a  hand  bag,  an  open  fan,  a  whisk 
broom,  or  a  simple  plant  in  pot,  in  silhouette. 

FEBRUARY. 

Draw  common  animals,  as  rooster,  bird,  dog,  cat,  rabbit,  to 
show  some  characteristic  action:  eating,  running,  etc. 


DRAWING. 


101 


Make  freehand  drawings  of  circle,  square,  triangle,  and  ob- 
long. Practice  in  the  use  of  the  ruler,  and  measurement  of 
inches  and  half  inches. 

]VIARCH. 

Make  drawings  of  the  triangle  and  oblong,  using  the  ruler.  ' 
Make  a  Greek  cross  from  colored  paper  and  mount  on  a 
background. 

Make  a  shield  from  colored  paper  and  mount  on  a  back- 
ground. 

Apply  the  Greek  cross  to  the  decoration  of  covers  for  num- 
ber, language,  or  other  school  work. 

APEIL. 

Study  stripe  patterns  having  wide  and  narrow  stripes  of  one 
color,  from  collected  illustrations. 

Practice  with  the  brush,  and  make  arrangements  of  broad 
and  narrow  stripes  in  two  tones  of  one  standard. 

Begin  the  study  of  buds  and  spring  flowers,  with  colored 
pencil  and  brush. 

MAY. 

Draw  simple  spring  flowers,  as  daisy,  dandelion,  buttercup, 
in  different  positions:  top  view,  side  view. 

Study  arrangement  and  spacing  in  surface  designs,  from  . 
collected  illustrations  of  polka  dot  and  other  simple  patterns. 

Practice  arrangement  and  spacing,  and  copy  a  simple  sur- 
face design. 

JUNE. 

Make  surface  designs,  using  lines  or  simple  figures  as  units. 
Make  surface  designs,  using  plant  details  as  units. 

Third  Year. 

september. 

Draw  sedges,  grasses,  fall  flowers,  as  aster  and  dandelion, 
fall  berries,  woodbine,  or  simple  brilliantly  colored  leaves, 
with  colored  pencil  or  brush  to  show  growth  and  movement. 


102 


DRAWING. 


Practice  drawing  on  the  blackboard,  circles  and  straight 
lines,  and  abstract  curves:  the  curve  of  force,  the  reversed 
curve,  and  the  spiral. 


Draw  sedges,  grasses,  leaves,  flowers  or  seed  vessels  in  circles 
or  oblongs,  and  add  initials  to  obtain  good  space  division  and 
balance. 

Eeview  standard  colors,  tints  and  shades,  and  compare  black, 
white,  and  gray. 

Stud}^  gradation  of  color  by  hues,  and  arrange  collected  il- 
lustrations. 

Make  color  groups,  each  containing  a  standard  and  two  re- 
lated hues,  from  colored  paper. 


Eeview  the  mixing  of  primary  colors  to  make  secondaries: 
E  plus  Y  equals  0;  Y  plus  B  equals  G;  B  plus  E  equals  V. 

Fill  circles  with  flat  washes  of  color,  modifying  standards 
to  make  hues:  E  to  VE  or  OE,  0  to  EO  or  YO,  Y  to  OY  or 
GY,  etc. 

Draw  fruits  or  vegetables  singly,  and  in  groups  of  two  or 
three,  with  colored  crayons  or  with  brush  and  color,  studying 
characteristic  marking,  and  suggesting  variations  in  hue. 

Make  a  drawing  suggestive  of  Thanksgiving. 


Practice  printing  alphabet  of  capitals. 
Make  gift  cards,  blotters,  or  calendars,  using  drawings  or 
mounted  pictures,  and  add  appropriate  greetings. 
Select  and  study  Christmas  pictures. 


OCTOBER. 


N'OYEMBEE. 


DEOEMBBR. 


JANUARY. 


Study  pictures  for  the  story. 


Examples  for  study: 
"Can't  You  Talk?".  . 
Feeding  Her  Birds.. 
The  Sistine  Madonna 


Eaphael 


Holmes 
.  .Millet 


DRAWING.  103 

Practice  drawing  ellipses,  triangles,  and  oblongs  of  different 
proportions  on  the  blackboard. 

Draw  common  objects,  as  a  jar  or  jug,  chatelaine  bag,  bowl 
containing  spoon,  a  simple  plant  in  pot  or  a  toy  or  doll  in 
silhouette. 

FEBEUART. 

Draw  common  animals,  as  rooster,  bird,  dog,  cat,  mouse, 
fish,  and  add  some  simple  object  as  accessory,  as  dog  and 
house,  mouse  and  trap,  fish  in  globe. 

Practice  in  the  use  of  the  ruler,  and  measurement  of  inches, 
half  and  quarter  inches. 

MARCH. 

Draw  oblongs  of  different  proportions  with  diameters  and 
diagonals,  using  the  ruler. 

Make  a  Maltese  cross  from  colored  paper  and  mount  on  a 
background. 

Make  a  paper  cutter  from  stiff  card  and  mount  on  a  back- 
ground. 

Apply  the  Maltese  cross  to  the  decoration  of  a  cover  for 
number  or  language  papers,  or  other  school  work. 

APRIL. 

Study  simple  plaid  patterns  from  collected  illustrations. 

Practice  with  the  brush,  and  make  plaids  with  broad  and 
narrow  stripes,  using  a  standard  color  and  one  or  two  hues. 

Begin  the  study  of  buds  and  spring  flowers  with  colored  pen- 
cil and  brush. 

MAY. 

Draw  simple  spring  flowers,  as  daisy,  cowslip,  dandelion, 
buttercup,  in  different  positions:  top  view,  side  view. 

Study  arrangement  and  spacing,  in  surface  designs  having 
simple  evident  units,  from  collected  illustrations. 

Practice  grouping  lines,  spots,. or  simplest  geometric  figures 
to  make  units. 


104 


DRAWING. 


JUNE. 

Make  surface  designs,  using  these  units. 

Make  surface  designs,  using  plant  details  as  nnits. 

Fourth  Yeae. 
septembe^e. 

Draw  simple  sprays  of  leaves,  flowers,  as  aster  or  marigold, 
seed  pods,  as  bean  or  pea,  with  pencil  or  brush,  giving  special 
attention  to  lines  of  growth  and  character  of  mass. 

Practice  drawing  on  the  blackboard,  circles  and  straight 
lines,  and  abstract  curves:  the  curve  of  force,  the  reversed 
curve,  and  spiral. 

OCTOBER. 

Draw  with  the  brush  simple  sprays,  flowers  or  seed  pods  in 
oblong  enclosing  forms,  arranged  to  secure  good  space  divi- 
sion and  balance. 

Study  scales  of  color  for  values:  central  tone,  tints,  and 
shades. 

Analyze  for  their  color  schemes,  natural  specimens  con- 
taining two  or  three  tones  of  one  color,  using  colored  paper. 

NOVEMBER. 

Make  with  water  color  a  scale  of  five  tones,  having  three 
intermediate  tones  of  gray  between  black  and  white. 

Make  a  similar  scale  having  the  three  intermediate  tones  of 
one  color. 

Study  apparent  changes  in  the  size  and  level  of  objects,  as 
affected  by  distance,  from  collected  pictures. 

Draw  fruit  or  vegetables  singly  and  in  simple  groups,  giv- 
ing special  attention  to  character,  and  indicating  the  separa- 
tion between  background  and  foreground. 

DECEMBER. 

Continue  the  drawing  of  simple  groups. 
Make  a  drawing  of  some  object  from  memory. 


DRAWING. 


105 


Practice  printing  alphabets  of  capitals  and  small  letters. 
Make  Christmas  cards,  using  drawings  or  small  pictures 
and  printing  appropriate  text  to  make  a  well-balanced  whole. 

JANUARY. 

Study  pictures  for  artistic  treatment  and  composition:  unity 
through  emphasis  of  principal  object  and  subordination  of  de- 
tails. 

Examples  for  study: 

Kabyl   Schreyer 

Penelope  Boothby  Eeynolds 

Madonna  and  Child  Dagnan-Bouveret 

Write  a  description  of  one  of  the  pictures  studied,  with 
something  of  the  artist  and  his  other  works.  The  work  of 
the  class  should  include  all  three. 

Draw  in  outline  single  objects  or  groups  of  two  objects, 
arranged  decoratiyely  within  given  spaces,  and  fill  with 
washes  of  black  and  gray,  or  <vith  two  tones  of  one  color. 

FEBRUARY. 

Draw  common  animals,  as  dog,  cat,  bird,  squirrel,  or  rabbit, 
and  add  some  simple  accessory  to  make  a  picture:  as  cat  eat- 
ing from  saucer,  squirrel  cracking  a  nut,  rabbit  in  grass. 

Practice  in  the  use  of  the  ruler,  and  measurement  includ- 
ing quarter  and  eighth  inches. 

Draw  accurately  the  circle,  square,  and  equilateral  triangle, 
using  compasses  and  ruler. 

MARCH. 

Review  the  cross  forms,  and  study  the  trefoil  and  quatre- 
foil,  drawing  on  the  blackboard. 

Design  a  penwiper  or  push-button,  giving  special  attention 
to  fitness  to  purpose  and  refinement  of  form. 

Make  a  cover  for  written  work,  using  the  trefoil  and  quatre- 
foil  for  decoration. 


106 


DRAWING. 


APRIL. 

Compare  the  relative  quantities  of  intense  and  subdued 
tones,  in  collected  illustrations  of  good  color  schemes  in  one 
scale. 

Study  plaid  patterns  and  make  plaids  with  the  brush,  using 
tones  of  gray  and  black. 

Make  ]3laids  using  three  tones  of  one  color. 
Begin  the  study  of  spring  flowers  in  color. 

MAY. 

Draw  spring  flowers,  as  violet,  cowslip,  bluet,  tulip,  in  color. 
Review  ornamental  cross  forms  and  study  rosettes. 
Design  cross  forms  or  rosettes  suggesting  flower  forms, 
suitable  for  use  as  florets  in  printing. 

JUNE. 

Study  consistency  in  the  measures  of  a  design,  and  make 
surface  designs  with  elements  made  by  grouping  straight  lines 
of  equal  length,  or  squares  and  oblongs  of  equal  area,  using 
tracing  paper  ruled  into  one  fourth  inch  squares. 

Make  surface  designs  in  two  or  three  tones  of  one  color, 
using  simple  rosettes  as  units,  and  giving  special  attention  to 
relative  proportions  of  spaces  and  units. 

Fifth  Y[eak. 
september. 

study  foreshortened  leaves  in  different  positions,  and  draw 
simple  sprays  of  leaves;  flowers  with  leaves,  as  clover,  salvia; 
seed  pods,  as  milkweed;  or  a  whole  plantain;  noting  carefully 
the  lines  of  growth. 

Practice  drawing  on  the  blackboard,  ellipses,  ovals,  and 
abstract  curves:  the  curve  of  force,  the  reversed  curve,  and 
spiral. 


DRAWING. 


107 


OCTOBEE. 

Draw  with  brush  and  ink,  decorative  arrangements  of 
sprays,  flowers,  seed  vessels,  or  simple  plants  in  rectangles,  to 
secure  good  space  division  and  balance. 

Study  analogous  relations  of  color. 

Analyze  for  their  color  schemes,  natural  specimens  contain- 
ing two  or  three  analogous  tones,  using  colored  paper. 

NOVEMBER. 

Eeview  scales  of  gray  and  color  in  five  tones. 

Make  chords  of  three  analogous  tones  in  water  color. 

Study  foreshortening  of  the  circle  in  different  positions, 
from  collected  pictures. 

Draw  simple  objects  involving  foreshortened  circles:  hem- 
ispherical bowl,  mug,  dish,  basin. 

DECEMBER. 

Draw  groups  of  two  or  three  objects,  as  dish  with  fruit, 
kettle  with  vegetables,  tumbler,  spoon  and  lemon,  noting  com- 
parative size  and  form. 

Make  a  drawing  of  some  object  from  memory. 

Practice  printing  alphabets,  studying  proportions  of  let- 
ters. 

Design  Christmas  cards  or  tokens,  using  drawings  or  pic- 
tures, and  printing  appropriate  text  to  make  a  well-balanced 
whole. 

JANUARY. 

Study  pictures  for  artistic  treatment  and  composition: 
unity  through  emphasis  of  principal  object  and  subordination 
of  details. 

Examples  for  study: 

The  Shepherdess   Lerolle 

Diogenes  in  Search  of  an  Honest  Man.  . .  .Salvator  Eosa 
The  Holy  Family  Murillo 


108 


DK  AWING. 


Write  a  description  of  one  of  the  pictures  studied,  with 
something  of  the  artist  and  his  other  works.  The  work  of  the 
class  should  include  all  three. 

Draw  in  outline,  single  objects  or  groups  of  two  objects, 
arranged  decoratively  within  given  spaces,  and  fill  with 
washes  of  black  and  gray,  or  with  two  analogous  tones  with 
gray,  white,  or  black. 

FEBEUARY. 

Draw  common  animals,  as  cat,  bird,  squirrel,  rabbit,  fish. 

Make  a  simple  decorative  arrangement  within  a  given  en- 
closing form,  as  fishes  swimming,  birds  flying. 

Draw  accurately  an  oblong  and  a  rhombus  of  good  propor- 
tions, using  the  ruler. 

MARCH. 

Study  shapes  and  proportions  of  panels,  tablets,  and  es- 
cutcheons, from  objects  and  collected  illustrations,  giving 
special  attention  to  fitness  to  purpose  and  refinement  of  form. 

Design  escutcheons,  tablets,  or  door  plates  with  appropriate 
lettering. 

Make  covers  for  written  work,  using  panels  of  good  pro- 
portions to  contain  printed  titles. 

APRIL. 

Study  collected  illustrations  of  good  analogous  coloring, 
and  compare  the  relative  proportions  of  intense  and  subdued 
color. 

Apply  schemes  of  three  analogous  tones  to  the  coloriDg  of 
tiles. 

Begin  the  study  of  spring  flowers  in  color. 

MAY. 

Draw  spring  flowers,  as  violet,  cowslip,  anemone,  jonquil, 
tulip,  in  color. 

Study  the  fleur  de  lis  and  similar  forms. 

Design  simple  bilateral  ornaments  suggestive  of  flower 
forms,  suitable  for  use  as  florets  in  printing. 


DRAWING. 


109 


JUNE. 

Study  consistency  in  the  measures  of  a  design,  and  make 
surface  designs  from  ornamental  repeats  made  by  grouping 
straight  and  curved  lines^  using  tracing  paper  over  paper 
ruled  into  one-fourth  inch  squares. 

Make  surface  designs  in  two  or  three  analogous  tones  of 
color,  using  bilateral  units,  and  giving  special  attention  to  rel- 
ative proportions  of  spaces  and  units. 

Sixth  Year. 

septembee. 

study  and  draw  sprays  of  leaves,  as  birch,  oak,  maple;  flow- 
ers, as  goldenrod  or  butter-and-eggs;  or  fruit  on  branch,  as 
apple,  pear,  or  plum;  noting  characteristic  details. 

Practice  on  the  blackboard,  drawing  ellipses,  ovals,  and 
abstract  curves:  the  curve  of  force,  the  reversed  curve,  and 
spiral. 

OCTOBER. 

Make  decorative  arrangements  of  sprays  of  leaves,  flowers, 
or  fruit,  in  rectangles,  to  secure  rhythm  and  balance,  using 
black  and  grays  or  color. 

Make  drawings  in  pencil,  ink,  or  color,  from  cross  sections 
of  fruit  or  vegetables,  as  lem^on,  cucumber,  tomato,  or  squash. 

Review  analogous  relations  of  color. 

Analyze  for  their  color  schemes,  natural  specimens  contain- 
ing analogous  relations  of  color,  using  water  colors. 

NOVEMBER. 

Review  chords  of  three  analogous  tones. 

Make  chords  of  five  analogous  tones,  using  water  color. 

Review  foreshortening  of  the  circle,  and  study  convergence 
from  collected  pictures. 

Draw  simple  rectangular  objects  involving  foreshortening 
and  convergence,  as  boxes,  books,  etc. 


110 


DRAWING. 


DECEMBER. 

Draw  groups  of  objects  involving  foreshortening  and  con- 
vergence, as  a  box  with  bon-bons,  writing  materials,  etc. 
Make  a  sketch  of  a  door  partly  open. 
Make  a  drawing  of  some  object  from  memory. 
Practice  printing  alphabets,  studying  proportions  of  letters. 
Print  tablets  or  simple  placards. 

JANUARY. 

Study  pictures  for  composition:  unity  through  concentra- 
tion of  interest  by  means  of  action  and  leading  lines. 

Examples  for  study: 

The  Horse  Fair  Kosa  Bonheur 

Eeading  Homer   Alma  Tadema 

Christ  and  the  Doctors  Hofmann 

Write  a  description  of  one  of  the  pictures  studied,  with 
something  of  the  artist  and  his  other  works.  The  work  of  the 
class  should  include  all  three. 

Draw  in  outline,  single  objects  or  groups  of  two  objects, 
arranged  decoratively  within  given  spaces^  and  fill  with 
^  washes  of  black  and  grays  or  with  analogous  tones  with  gray, 
white,  or  black. 

FEBRUARY. 

study  and  draw  a  simple  pose  in  silhouette,  as  a  boy  or  girl 
standing  with  umbrella,  book,  or  bag,  having  the  face  turned 
from  the  class. 

Look  first  for  the  long  lines  in  the  figure,  giving  attention 
to  action  and  proportion,  not  to  details. 

Draw  accurately  an  ellipse  and  oval,  using  the  trammel  in 
the  construction  of  the  ellipse,  and  compasses  and  trammel  in 
the  construction  of  the  oval. 

Study  views  and  their  relations  and  draw  front  and  top 
view  of  square  prism  and  cylinder. 


DRAWING. 


Ill 


MAECH. 

Study  fitness  to  purpose,  and  beauty  in  objects,  tlirougli 
variety  and  proportion,  using  collected  illustrations. 

Design  picture  mounts  or  paper  knives  of  good  proportion. 

Design  bowls  of  good  proportion  and  curvature,  and  deco- 
rate with  bands  of  color. 

APRIL. 

Study  collected  illustrations  of  good  analogous  coloring,  and 
compare  the  relative  proportions  of  intense  and  subdued  color. 
Apply  schemes  of  analogous  tones  to  the  coloring  of  tiles. 
Begin  the  study  of  spring  flowers  in  color. 

MAY. 

Draw  spring  flowers,  as  violet,  cowslip,  anemone,  jonquil, 
tulip,  in  color. 

Study  the  lotus  and  its  use  in  ornament. 

Practice  grouping  lines  and  spots  to  secure  rhythm. 

JUNF. 

Design  bi-S3^mmetrical  or  radial  ornaments  suggesting  flow- 
er forms. 

Study  Japanese  method  of  arrangement  in  surface  cover- 
ing. 

Make  surface  designs  in  color,  arranging  in  a  similar  man- 
ner units  derived  from  top  and  side  views  of  flowers,  or  from 
cross  sections  of  fruit  and  vegetables  drawn  in  October. 

Seyextii  Year, 
september. 

Study  and  draw  sprays  of  leaves,  as  sumach,  oak,  maple; 
flowers,  as  goldenrod,  butter-and-eggs,  salvia,  or  scarlet  gera- 
nium; or  fruit  on  branch  with  leaves,  as  apple,  pear,  or  quince, 
noting  characteristic  details,  as  joints  and  thickness  of  stems. 


112 


DRAWING. 


Practice  on  the  blackboard,  drawing  ellipses,  ovals,  and 
abstract  curves;  the  curve  of  force,  the  reversed  curve,  and 
spiral. 

OCTOBEE. 

Make  decorative  arrangements  of  sprays  of  leaves,  flowers, 
or  fruit  on  branch,  in  rectangles,  to  secure  rhythm  and  bal- 
ance, using  black  and  grays  or  color. 

Study  and  draw  trees  of  characteristic  shape,  as  apple,  ce- 
dar, elm,  or  pine.  Arrange  in  rectangles,  and  suggest  a  hill- 
side, a  path,  or  rock,  to  make  a  well-balanced  composition. 

Study  hot  colors:  E,  0,  Y;  and  cold  colors,  G,  B,  V;  and 
the  relations  of  complementaries:  E-G,  0-B,  Y-V. 

Analyze  for  their  color  schemes,  natural  objects  containing 
complementary  colors  in  two  or  three  tones,  using  water  col- 
ors. 

Is'OVEMBEE. 

Mix  the  three  primaries  E  plus  Y  plus  B  to  make  neutral 
or  subdued  colors  and  gray. 

Make  chords  of  complementary  colors  in  three  tones. 

Study  foreshortening  and  convergence  from  collected  pic- 
tures. 

Make  sketches  of  the  square  prism  in  different  positions. 
Draw  rectangular  objects,  as  a  dress  suit  case,  covered  box, 
or  a  simple  article  of  furniture. 

DECEMBER. 

Study  grouping  to  secure  unity. 

Draw  groups  of  objects,  as  a  vase  with  books,  materials  for 
water  color  painting,  a  Japanese  teapot  with  cup  and  saucer. 

Make  a  drawing  of  some  object  from  memory. 

Stiuly  character  and  proportions  of  good  letters,  and  design 
initials. 

Avoid  over-elaboration,  and  gain  beauty  through  refined 
proportions. 


DRAWING. 


113 


Study  pictures  for  composition:  unity  through  concentra- 
tion of  interest^  by  means  of  leading  lines  and  action  or  move- 
ment. 

Examples  for  study: 


AVrite  a  description  of  one  of  the  pictures  studied,  with 
something  of  the  artist  and  his  other  works.  The  work  of 
the  class  should  include  all  three. 

Draw  in  outline,  single  objects  or  simple  groups,  arranged 
decoratively  within  given  spaces,  and  fill  with  washes  of  black 
and  grays,  or  with  complementary  tones  with  gray,  white,  or 
black. 


Study  and  draw  from  a  simple  pose  suggesting  action,  as  a 
girl  sweeping,  a  girl  or  boy  marking  on  the  blackboard,  a  boy 
with  a  tennis  racket  or  baseball  bat.  Look  first  for  the  long 
lines  expressing  action  in  the  figure,  then  observe  the  propor- 
tions as  the  number  of  heads  in  the  figure,  etc.  Do  not 
attempt  details. 

Draw  accurately  the  hexagon,  octagon,  and  pentagon,  us- 
ing compasses  and  ruler. 

Study  the  relation  of  views  and  method  of  figuring  in  work- 
ing drawing. 

Make  a  working  drawing,  in  two  views,  of  a  simple  rec- 
tangular object,  as  a  box,  and  mark  important  dimensions. 


Study  illustrations  of  good  applied  design  in  articles  of 
common  use,  giving  special  attention  to  fitness  to  purpose  and 
refinement  of  form. 

Design  folding  picture  mounts  or  triptychs. 

Design  mugs,  cups,  and  jars,  giving  special  attention  to 
shape  and  proportion  of  handles. 


The  Old  Temeraire  

Aurora   

Christ  in  the  Peasant's  Cottage 


, .  . .  .  Turner 
Guide  Eeni 
,  .L'hermitte 


FEBRUARY. 


MARCH. 


114 


DRAWING. 


APEIL. 

Slud_y  collected  illustration  of  good  complementary  color- 
ing, aud  compare  the  relative  quantities  of  intense  and  sub- 
dued color. 

Apply  balanced  schemes  of  two  or  three  complementary 
tones  to  the  coloring  of  tiles  or  panels. 

Begin  the  study  of  spring  flowers  in  color. 

MAY. 

Draw  spring  flowers  in  color:  violet,  anemone,  columbine, 
lady's  slipper,  jonquil,  or  fruit  blossoms  in  clusters. 

Study  the  anthemion  and  similar  forms  for  rhythm  and  bal- 
ance. 

Practice  grouping  lines  and  spots  to  obtain  balance  and 
rhythm. 

Repeat,  using  flower  forms. 

JUNE. 

Design  book  covers,  applying  bi-symmetrical  ornaments. 
Make  surface  designs  in  color,  arranging  bi-symmetrical 
units  to  obtain  balance  and  rhythm. 

Eighth  Yeae. 
september. 

study  and  draw  sprays  of  vines  as  woodbine,  wild  cucum- 
ber, grape,  nasturtium;  or  branches  with  fruit,  as  apple, 
quince,  chestnut,  hickory,  horse-chestnut;  or  wild  plants,  as 
mullein  or  milkweed,  noting  characteristic  details. 

Practice  on  the  blackboard,  drawing  abstract  curves. 

OCTOBER. 

Make  decorative  arrangements  of  sprays  of  leaves,  vines  or 
branches  with  fruit,  in  rectangles  or  other  enclosing  forms,  to 
secure  balance  and  rhythm.    Eender  in  black  and  grays,  or 


DRAWING. 


115 


color,  experimenting  with  different  schemes  of  tones,  to  de- 
cide the  most  agreeable. 

Stndy  and  draw  trees,  as  birch,  oak,  maple.  Eender  these 
in  color,  arranging  in  rectangles  and  adding  some  simple  ac- 
cessory, as  a  rock,  path,  or  hillside,  to  make  well-balanced 
compositions. 

Eeview  analogous  and  complementary  relations  of  color. 
Analyze  natural  objects  for  their  color  schemes,  and  render 
important  tones  in  water  color. 

NOYEMBEE. 

Eeview  the  making  of  neutral  or  subdued  colors,  and  gray, 
by  mixing  the  primaries  E  plus  Y  plus  B. 

Make  chords  of  more  than  three  tones  from  complementary 
color  scales. 

Eeview  foreshortening  and  convergence,  and  study  these 
phenomena  from  collected  pictures. 

Make  sketches  of  the  triangular  prism  and  pyramid  in  dif- 
ferent positions. 

Study  grouping  to  secure  unity. 

Draw  groups  suggestive  of  a  theme,  as  vacation,  lunch, 
needle  work,  an  occupation  or  a  game. 

DECEMBER. 

Draw  a  corner  of  the  room,  or  other  bit  of  interior. 
Make  a  drawing  of  some  object  from  memory. 
Study  character  and  proportions  of  good  letters,  and  print 
titles  for  covers  of  books,  sheet  music,  etc. 

JANUARY. 

Study  pictures  for  composition  and  artistic  treatment:  har- 
mony through  relation  of  masses — opposition,  gradation;  rela- 
tion of  lines — contrast,  flow;  rendering  of  detail — literal  and 
suggestive. 


116 


DRAWING. 


Examples  for  study: 
June  Clouds  .  . .  . 

Spring   

The  Gleaners  .  . . 


.Hunt 
.  Corot 
Millet 


The  Delphic  Sybil  

The  Madonna  of  the  Chair 
The  Golden  Stairs  


Michael  Angelo 

 Eaphael 

. .  .Burne- Jones 


Write  a  description  of  one  of  the  pictures  studied,  with 
something  of  the  artist  and  his  other  works.  The  work  of 
the  class  should  include  all  four. 

Use  photographs  and  illustrations  for  suggestions  in  land- 
scape. 

Make  decorative  landscape  compositions,  arranging  ele- 
ments in  rhythmic  space  relations,  as  tree  and  church,  with 
hillside;  house,  tree,  and  road;  sea,  boat,  and  shore;  meadow 
and  winding  stream.    Eender  in  black  and  grays  or  color. 


Study  and  draw  from  a  pose.  Have  the  model  in  costume 
to  represent  some  character,  as  soldier,  nurse,  traveler;  or 
posed  to  suggest  some  action,  as  reading,  knitting,  playing 
golf  or  tennis. 

Observe  the  following  order  of  steps  in  drawing:  (1)  Sketch 
the  long  lines  expressing  action.  (2)  Note  carefully  the  pro- 
portions of  the  figure.    (3)  Draw  important  details. 

Eeview  the  relation  of  views  and  methods  of  figuring  in 
working  drawing. 

Make  a  working  drawing  of  some  common  object,  as  a  sled, 
table,  pulley. 


Study  illustrations  of  good  applied  design  in  articles  of 
common  use,  giving  special  attention  to  fitness  to  purpose  and 
refinement  of  form. 

Design  tables,  bookcase,  chair  backs,  andirons. 

Design  jars,  vases,  or  pitchers,  and  render  in  washes  of 
color. 


FEBRUARY. 


MARCH. 


DRAWING. 


117 


APRIL. 

Study  collected  illustrations  of  good  coloring,  for  balance  of 
complementary  tones,  and  relative  proportions  of  intense  and 
subdued  color. 

Apply  a  balanced  scheme  in  tones  from  complementary 
scales  to  the  coloring  of  a  panel  or  rug. 

Begin  the  study  of  spring  flowers  in  color,  rendering  them 
decoratively  in  a  few  well-related  tones. 

MAY. 

Draw  spring  flowers,  as  columbine,  rhodora,  lady's  slippe;r, 
dogwood,  iris,  jonquil,  or  fruit  blossoms,  in  color,  decoratively. 

Study  the  acanthus,  and  other  adaptations  of  plant  forms 
in  ornament. 

Practice  grouping  lines  and  spots  to  obtain  balance  and 
rhythm. 

Make  similar  arrangements,  using  adapted  plant  forms. 

JUJTE. 

Make  surface  designs  in  ink,  from  rhythmic  arrangements 
of  lines  and  spots. 

Make  surface  designs  in  color,  from  similar  arrangements 
of  adapted  plant  forms. 


CHAPTEE  XV. 


NATUEE  STUDY  AND  ELEMENTARY  AGEICULTURE 
To  THE  Teacher. 

Keep  in  mind  that  it  is  your  problem  not  to  teach  this 
course  as  a  technical  or  semi-technical  subject  like  arith- 
metic or  English  grammar^,  but  rather  to  present  the  topics 
outlined,  as  interest  calls,  to  the  end  of  sharpening  the  senses^ 
enlivening  all  school  work,  putting  children  in  touch  with  the 
simpler  fads  of  nature. 

PLAN  YOUR  WORK.  Arrange  it  far  ahead  so  as  to 
make  it  articulate  with  your  other  subjects,  the  season,  and 
the  materials  you  can  get.  Study  the  outline  and  decide 
when  you  will  teach  each  part  of  it,  and  then  be  ready. 
Always  attend  to  things  the  pupils  bring  in  and  are  inter- 
ested in.  If  such  things  are  beyond  your  knowledge,  study 
them  with  the  pupils. 

You  may  not  be  able  to  teach  all  the  work  outlined  in  the 
course.  Then  teach  a  part  of  it  and  teach  that  part  so  well 
that  both  you  and  the  pupils  will  want  more.  Study  the 
work  as  you  teach  it  so  that  you  may  grow  stronger  each 
time  you  teach  the  work. 

Make  and  keep  collections  of  useful  materials.  Pupils  and 
patrons  will  help  if  you  will  only  ask  them. 

It  has  been  attempted  to  arrange  the  outline  so  that  grades 
one  and  •  two,  three  and  four,  five  and  six,  and  seven  and 
eight  can  be  combined  and  the  work  shortened  in  crowded 
schools.  There  is  a  sequence  in  the  plant  work  from  year 
to  year,  and  in  the  same  way  in  the  other  work.  So,  en- 
deavor to  connect  last  year's  work  and  prepare  for  next  year's. 

It  is  assumed  that  every  teacher  will  have  in  the  room, 
flowers,  potted  plants,  etc.,  and  the  children  will  be  asked  in 

118 


NATURE  STUDY. 


119 


turn  or  together  to  assist  in  caring  for  them.  Also  that  the 
children  will  be  enlisted  in  the  work  of  cleaning,  caring  for, 
and  improving  the  school  grounds;  and  a  pride  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  grounds  developed  in  each  pupil. 

For  the  first  four  years,  nature  study  includes  home  geog- 
raphy. 

Systematic  work  in  geography  proper  begins  in  fifth  year. 

Get  your  name  on  the  mailing  list  to  receive  Bulletins  from 
the  Agricultural  College  at  Durham.  Read  them  carefully. 
Allow  your  pupils  to  read  them.  Send  for  United  States  Bul- 
letins. A  letter  addressed  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C,  asking  for  a  list  of  available  bulletins,  will 
bring  a  list  from  which  you  may  make  selections.  If  you 
request  the  Commissioner  of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C, 
to  send  you  the  monthly  list  of  publications,  you  will  know  of 
new  bulletins  within  one  month  of  the  time  they  are  issued, 
x^sk  the  department  for  the  list  of  bulletins  available  now  and 
make  selections  from  this  list. 

Appaeatus  and  Material. 

The  successful  teacher  by  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  can 
carry  on  a  great  deal  of  work  with  very  little  apparatus. 
Tin  cans,  plates,  saucers,  glass  tumblers,  enameled  basins, 
pasteboard  and  small  wooden  boxes,  pieces  of  glass,  blotting 
paper,  etc.,  should  be  carefully  preserved  from  term  to  term. 

Fruit  jars,  mustard  bottles,  or  battery  jars  make  good 
aquaria.  Fruit  jars,  tumblers,  or  wide-mouthed  bottles  with 
muslin  or  cheese  cloth  tied  over  the  tops  make  good  insect 
cages.  A  lantern  chimney  on  a  pot  of  earth  and  the  top  of 
cloth  makes  a  better  cage.  A  box  eight  or  ten  inches  deep 
with  three  inches  of  earth  in  the  bottom  and  a  screen  top 
makes  a  good  vivarium.  Two  plates  turned  face  together,  so 
that  one  becomes  a  cover,  with  several  thicknesses  of  cloth  in 
the  bottom  plate,  moistened  and  kept  moist,  make  a  good  seed 
tester.  Put  a  thin  block  under  the  cloth,  allowing  the  edges 
of  the  cloth  to  touch  the  bottom  of  the  plate.  Plant  seeds 
cn  the  cloth  above  the  block,  cover  them  with  a  double  layer 


120 


NATURE  STUDY. 


of  doth,  pour  water  around  the  block,  and  you  have  a  good 
seed  tester.  It  keeps  the  seeds  wet,  out  of  the  water,  and 
enables  you  to  examine  and  count  easily. 

Flower  pots  and  tin  cans,  with  the  bottles,  glasses,  and 
fruit  jars,  furnish  good  seed  and  earth  experiment  materials. 
Shallow  boxes,  narrow  enough  to  stand  in  the  window,  make 
good  window  gardens.  Blocks  may  be  used  to  divide  them 
into  parts  for  different  soils.    Care  must  be  taken  in  watering. 

A  schoolroom  model  of  a  hot-bed  could  be  made  of  a  box 
fourteen  inches  deep  on  one  side  and  twenty  inches  on  the 
other,  preferably  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  wide  and  of 
length  to  suit.  Cover  with  glass  in  frames,  and  arrange  on 
another  box,  bench,  or  chairs  of  convenient  height  with  the 
slanting  glass  top  facing  the  sun.  Put  manure  and  earth  in 
ihe  bottom  and  the  class  may  get  all  the  principles  of  hot-bed 
work.  An  outside  bed  is  to  be  preferred,  of  course.  Many 
valuable  lessons  may  be  given  the  boys,  even  by  a  teacher  who 
has  not  had  manual  training,  if  they  are  detailed  to  make 
apparatus  according  to  written  plans  and  held  to  careful 
workmanship. 

A  school  garden  is  of  the  greatest  importance  and  can  "be 
started  on  the  school  grounds,  or  near  by,  on  all  but  a  few  of 
our  schoolhouse  lots — and  these  few  chiefly  in  the  cities.  Do 
not  give  up  the  idea  of  a  garden  because  you  cannot  have 
exactly  what  you  would  like.  Almost  anything  is  better 
tlian  nothing. 

Window  boxes  eight  inches  wide,  seven  inches  deep,  and  as 
long  as  the  window  is  wide,  make  good  gardens  for  the  win- 
dow sill.  If  these  are  made  of  zinc  they  do  not  leak,  last  a 
long  time,  and  may  be  painted  to  look  very  neat.  Zinc  boxes 
must  not  be  kept  too  wet.  Shallow  wood  boxes  may  be 
lined  with  zinc  and  used  as  trays  for  flower  pots,  etc.  Both 
of  these  may  do  service  as  aquaria.  See  sketches  for  other 
suggestions. 

Most  nature  study  texts  give  helpful  suggestions  for  mak- 
ing apparatus,  as  do  the  United  States  Bulletins.  Hodge's 
Nature  Study  and  Life,  Holtz's  Nature  Study,  and  other  books 


NATURE  STUDY. 


121 


mentioned  below  make  helpful  suggestions  concerning  appara- 
tus. 

For  Keeping  Live.  Animals  and  Insects. 

I.  An  insect  cage  made  from  a  lantern  or  lamp  chimney 
set  in  earth  in  a  flower  pot  or  tin  can  and  a  piece  of  cloth 
tied  over  the  top. 


J. 

II,  A  battery  jar,  and  III,  a  fruit  jar  aquarium.  There 
should  be  a  few  snails  to  keep  it  free  from  shine  and  some 
hornwort,  elodia,  and  perhaps  duckweed  in  the  water  to  fur- 
nish oxygen.  Polliwogs,  aquatic  larvse,  and  other  water  ani- 
m.als  may  be  kept  in  these.  Polliwogs  get  along  better  if  a 
piece  of  slate  is  fastened  half  into  water  so  as  to  furnish 
a  shallow  shore  line  on  which  they  may  rest.  The  slate  may 
be  hung  on  wires  from  the  top  of  the  jar.  Larger  square 
aquaria  may  be  purchased  from  dealers  if  funds  are  available. 


IV,  Side  view,  and  V,  floor  plan  of  a  vivarium  or  terrarium. 
A  box  five  inches  deep  and  two  by  one  and  one-half  feet  («ir 
of  a  size  to  suit),  has  posts  eighteen  inches  long  fastened  in 


122 


NATURE  STUDY. 


each  corner  and  connected  at  the  top  by  wooden  bars.  Cover 
the  top  with  a  door  made  of  netting.  The  sides  may  be  glass, 
screen,  or  cloth  netting,  or  one  or  two  sides  may  be  of  wood. 


T  


s 


or 


If])  as  Cj^  ulta    T\  eit  i  \A 


X4" 

Fill  the  box  with  a  mixture  of  sand,  gravel,  and  loam  and  in 
the  center  bury  to  the  top  a  dish  or  granite  pan  for  water. 
Put  in  a  few  plants  and  this  will  furnish  a  home  for  insects, 
toads,  salamanders,  etc.    It  may  be  used  for  seed  germination 


 u 

(Lwdl 

 4 

at  other  seasons.  It  will  probably  be  more  successful  if  two 
or  three  holes  are  bored  in  each  side  near  the  bottom  for 
drainage. 


NATURE  STUDY. 


123 


An  Inside  Hot-Bed. 

A  very  serviceable  and  at  the  same  time  a  typical  hot-bed 
for  inside  or  even  outside  use  may  be  made  in  the  school.  A 
convenient  size  is  two  by  three,  although  the  length  and  width 
may  be  varied  but  should  be  such  that  a  window  sash  can  be 
purchased  to  fit  the  top.  The  sketch  shows  the  end  view  of 
such  a  bed  two  feet  wide,  fifteen  inches  deep  on  the  south  and 
twenty-one  to  twenty-four  inches  deep  on  the  north  side.  If 
the  bottom  be  a  box  two  by  three  feet  and  eight  inches  deep 
and  the  top  be  removable,  the  box  may  be  used  for  other  seed 


\  '  Ji  d-  '  \ 
L  L:,i...in..,........^,......i..,.o.,..,.,i;J  I 

'■ —  --^f"  1 

and  soil  work.  In  the  diagram  (Fig.  6)  a  represents  the  sash 
cover;  l,  a  strip  to  hold  the  sash  in  place;  c,  line  of  division 
between  bottom  and  removable  top;  d,  d,  d,  drainage  holes. 
Such  a  box  should  contain  six  inches  of  fermenting  manure 
and  five  inches  of  earth  above  that.  It  may  have  legs  nailed 
to  it  or  be  supported  by  a  box  or  table.  The  south  side  of 
the  top  should  be  level  with  a  south  window  if  possible.  If 
buried  for  use  outside  it  needs  no  bottom  but  should  be  well 
banked  to  the  top  with  earth. 

Directions  for  making  larger  outside  hot-beds  may  be  ob- 
tained from  bulletins  and  agricultural  papers  and  textbooks. 


124 


NATURE  STUDY. 


First  Year. 

Common  Trees  and  Plants.  Teach  the  children  to  identify 
common  trees,  as  the  maple,  oak,  birch,  giving  special  atten- 
tion to  the  leaves. 

Teach  the  children  to  recognize  the  common  flowers  and 
vegetables  of  the  street,  orchard,  garden,  and  home;  colors 
and  home  of  fall  and  spring  flowers,  nse  as  decorations  and 
for  drawing  lessons. 

Study  effects  of  frost  on  plants.  Leaf  fall  and  preparation 
for  winter.  Gather  seeds  of  a  few  trees,  especially  nnt  tree; 
nse  to  trees  and  as  animal  food.  Food  plants  of  locality. 
Gathering  and  storing  for  winter  of  nuts,  berries,  fruits, 
grains,  and  vegetables.    Where  kept  and  why? 

Observe  evergreen  trees  throughout  winter. 

Opening  of  buds  in  the  spring,  flowers,  and  leaves  of  trees. 
What  have  they  been  doing  through  the  winter? 

Seeds  and  Germination.  Plant  seeds  of  bean,  corn,  and 
pea  on  blotting  paper  under  drinking  glass.  Watch  them 
swell  and  grow;  notice  growth  of  roots,  stem,  and  leaves. 
Find  baby  plant  in  soaked  seeds  and  its  food.  Toward  spring 
start  the  seeds  in  soil.    Use  of  soil  to  the  plant. 

Garden.  The  aim  of  this  year's  garden  work  should  be  to 
familiarize  the  children  with  plants  as  raised.  The  keynote 
of  this  and  the  next  year's  work  should  be  recognition  of  and 
some  acquaintance  with  a  considerable  number  of  forms, — 
plant,  animal,  and  inanimate. 

Birds  and  Insects.  Simple  lessons  on  food,  nesting,  care  of 
young,  and  migration  of  better  known  or  commoner  birds  of 
each  season.  Very  simple  lessons  on  insect  life,  food,  homes, 
hiding,  etc. 

Common  Animals.  Study  pets  as  to  simple  form,  covering, 
movements,  food  habits,  hunting,  sleeping,  etc.  Note  sea- 
sonal changes. 

The  Home.  Building  materials,  heating,  lighting,  getting 
fuel, — all  in  the  simplest  way. 

Geography.    Direction, — use    well-known    roads,  streets, 


NATURE  STUDY. 


125 


buildings,  or  homes  to  aid  in  developing  idea.  Teach  pupils 
to  tell  time.  Teach  names  of  days  in  the  week,  months, 
and  days  in  the  month  by  keeping  and  constantly  using  a 
calendar  for  weather  records.  Include  in  calendar,  weather 
observations:  winds  named  from  points  of  compass,  dew, 
frost,  rain,  snow,  ice,  cloudy  and  fair  weather. 

Seookd  Yeae. 

Common  Trees  and  Plants.  Eeview  trees  and  plants 
learned  last  year,  and  teach  pupils  to  know  such  new  ones  as 
the  elm,  ash,  butternut,  etc.  Teach  pupils  to  distinguish 
trees  by  twigs,  leaves,  and  general  shape.  Note  length  of 
trunk  and  branching  habit.  Include  apple  or  other  fruit 
trees  and  evergreens  as  well.  Use  leaves  for  games,  exercises, 
sense-training,  drawing,  and  paper-cutting  as  in  the  first 
year's  work.  Eeview  leaf  fall;  notice  scar  and  bud  ready 
formed  for  next  year.  Winter  protection  of  buds,  uses  of 
buds.  Teach  how  fruits  and  seeds  come  from  flowers  by 
watching  the  development  closely.  Uses  of  trees  as  pro- 
ducers of  food,  and  as  lumber  for  houses,  furniture,  etc. 

Seeds  and  Germination.  Review  seed  work  of  last  year, 
using  new  seeds;  include  some  nuts  or  tree  seeds  planted  in 
the  fall.  Use  the  lima  bean  and  make  a  careful  study  of  the 
bean, — dry,  soaked,  separated,  and  growing  in  boxes  or  cans. 
"Watch  carefully  the  growth  of  the  roots. 

Garden.  Set  out  some  of  the  plants  just  referred  to  and 
plant  others, — some  in  coarse  sand  and  some  in  loam.  Allow 
them  to  grow  and  teach  an  elementary  lesson  on  good  and 
poor  soils.  Note  depth  of  planting  and  show  need  of  light 
to  tops  and  leaves. 

Let  the  garden  work  for  this  year  be  class  and  not  individ- 
ual gardens. 

Fruits.  Study  a  few  fruits,  native  and  imported:  struc- 
ture, edible  portion,  stones,  seeds,  etc.,  and  use  as  food;  care 
both  in  shipping  and  storing.  Correlate  drawing  and  arith- 
metic work.  Conditions  in  lands  where  imported  fruits  grew. 
In  same  way  a  few  of  common  garden  vegetables,  during 
market  and  growing  season. 


126 


NATUKE  STUDY. 


Common  Animals.  Eeview  observation  of  pets  in  much 
tiie  same  way  as  in  first  year  and  extend  to  common  domestic 
animals.  Let  the  class  find  out  what  it  can  about  wild  ani- 
mals related  to  pets  or  to  domestic  animals.  Use  for  this 
purpose  pictures,  stories,  etc. 

Birds  and  Insects.  Watch  daily  life  of  one  or  two  well- 
known  birds, — food,  shelter,  nest.  Departure  and  arrival  of  a 
few  common  birds.    What  birds  remain  all  winter?  Observe. 

Continue  elementary  study  of  insect  life,  aiming  chiefly  to 
teach  pupils  to  recognize  the  common  species.  In  a  very 
general  way,  study  the  insects  recognized:  where  found,  what 
do  they  eat,  how  do  they  move,  hide,  etc.  If  possible  find 
pupae  and  watch  emergence. 

Aquarium.  Start  an  aquarium  in  a  small  way;  a  collec- 
tion of  fruit  jars-  will  do  if  nothing  better  offers.  Make  a  few 
trips  to  ponds  and  streams  for  water  life  and  aquarium  mate- 
rials. Use  May  fly  or  dragon  fly  larv^,  polliwogs,  pondscum, 
etc. 

The  Home.  Review,  going  more  into  detail  than  last  year: 
homes,  building  material,  heating,  ventilating,  and  conven- 
iences, where  materials  are  obtained,  in  a  general  way. 

Clothing:  source,  cost,  care,  and  making.  Cotton  plant:  its 
home,  care,  and  later  history  of  the  cotton.  Simple  ideas  of 
transportation  and  industries  again.  Leather  for  shoes: 
source,  making,  in  simple  way.    Visit  shoe  shop  if  possible. 

Geographj.  Keep  calendar  again,  of  weather,  and  of  birds 
going  and  returning. 

Continue  weather  work  on  winds,  clouds,  storms,  directions 
from  which  storms  come,  etc.  Observe  fogs,  dew,  frost,  find 
f^now  crystals.  Expansion  of  ice  on  freezing:  efl^ects.  Sports 
and  life  in  far  north.  Power  of  wind  in  storms;  sailing  ves- 
sels, windmills. 

Continue  the  lessons  on  local  geography:  increasing  area, 
new  industries,  roads,  and  surrounding  places.  Introduce 
idea  of  governmental  units.  Simple  lessons  on  relief  in  con- 
nection with  the  new  areas  studied:  streams,  valleys,  hills,  etc. 

Stories  of  other  lands:  people  and  conditions. 


NATURE  STUDY. 


12T 


Simple  observations  of  evaporation  and  drying,  experiments 
showing  effect  of  heat  and  wind.  Connect  with  earth  in  fields 
and  roads,  home  washings,  etc.  Evaporation  cools:  wet  hands 
with  water  and  other  liquids. 

Third  Year. 

Common  Trees  and  Plants.  Continue  work  of  identifying 
and  studying  common  trees.  Eeview  those  of  last  two  years. 
Choice  of  location;  effects  of  wind,  lack  of  light,  and  crowd- 
ing. Include  orchard  trees.  Buds,  different  coverings,  and 
values;  flower  and  leaf  buds.  Study  modes  of  yearly  growth 
on  twigs  and  trunks  in  an  elementary  way.  Terminal  buds 
and  their  importance.  Keep  calendar  of  leaf  fall  and  flower 
and  leaf  bud  opening  of  different  trees.  Study  means  and 
importance  of  dispersal  of  several  kinds  of  seeds.  Plant  nuts 
or  other  tree  seeds  in  fall  and  watch  results  in  spring  and 
later  years. 

In  connection  with  leaf  fall  study  annuals,  biennials,  and 
perennials.  Underground  parts  and  storage  of  food  there. 
Study  examples  used  as  foods, — turnips,  potato,  carrot,  beet. 
Storage  and  care  of  root  crop  for  winter.  Bulbs,  large  bud- 
like underground  parts;  time  and  depth  of  planting  and  care 
of  bulbs,  as  tulips,  crocus,  hyacinth, — compare  onion.  If  pos- 
sible plant  in  school  garden  in  an  elementary  way.  Need 
of  sunshine,  turning  and  arrangement  of  leaves  as  regards 
light. 

Birds  and  Insects.  Keep  bird  calendar;  note  leaving  and 
return  of  birds;  migrating  habits,  where  and  why;  nesting; 
food;  care  of  young.  Learn  new  kinds.  Value  and  protec- 
tion of  birds.  Careful  study  for  structure,  habits,  perching, 
flying,  etc.,  of  either  chicken  or  dove.  Care  of  young  chicken 
aud  dove  compared. 

Continue  work  on  insect  life,  putting  more  emphasis  on 
habits  and  life  history.  Learn  names  for  commoner  and  more 
important  kinds.  Elementary  work  on  nests,  wings,  legs, 
stings,  sucking  and  biting  mouth  parts,  young  and  old  forms, 
food,  hiding  places,  eggs,  enemies,  benefits  or  injuries.  Study 


128 


NATURE  STUDY. 


mosquito  in  aquarium,  house  fly,  and  bee;  relation  of  first  two 
to  spread  of  disease. 

Aquarium.  Continue  keeping  aquarium  and  studying 
water  life,  plant  and  animal.  Study  frog  and  if  possible 
work  out  life  history  in  aquarium  from  eggs  in  spring. 

Garden.  Continue  work  of  last  year.  Let  the  garden  be  a 
community  and  not  an  individual  garden.  Much  of  the 
spring  plant  work  will  need  a  garden.  In  addition,  allowing 
the  children  some  range  as  to  choice,  have  them  plant  some 
early  vegetables,  such  as  radishes,  lettuce,  peas,  etc.,  together 
with  some  early  flowers  adapted  to  the  locality.  Select  for 
planting  by  the  children  such  vegetables  and  flowers  as  will  be 
likely  to  make  a  fair  showing  before  the  close  of  the  spring 
term. 

Domestic  Animals.  Study  of  cow  as  source  of  milk,  butter, 
leather,  meat,  etc.:  her  food,  covering,  habits,  structure,  and 
care. 

Simple  problems  involving  cost  of  milk  and  butter.  (See 
xirithmetic.)  Visit  dairy  if  possible.  Stories  of  cattle  coun- 
tries. Continue  work  on  other  native  and  foreign  wild  ani- 
mals, especially  of  cow  kind. 

The  Home.  Clothing  study:  sheep, — care,  life,  shearing, 
wool  industry  and  woolen  clothing.  Eubber  and  rubber  in- 
dustry in  same  way.  Use  these  to  enlarge  ideas  of  other 
lands. 

Coal:  kinds,  where  found,  how  used,  transportation,  mines 
and  mining,  miner^s  life.    Stories  and  pictures. 

Stoves  and  other  methods  of  heating:  uses  of  drafts,  chim- 
neys, etc.,  combustion;  need  of  air;  products, — up  chimney 
and  through  grate.  Effects  of  heat,  in  simple  way,  conduc- 
tion, radiation,  hot  air  rising  (toys  above  stove),  expansion, 
making  steam  and  drying  (recall  and  repeat  work  of  last  year 
on  evaporation),  softening  of  materials.  Injury  to  seeds  and 
plants.    Connect  winds  and  ventilation. 

Cooking:  what  mother  does  in  different  cooking  pro- 
cesses,— baking,  roasting,  boiling,  etc. 

Geography.  Sun  heating  and  lighting  earth.  Trace  sun's 
movement  with  shadow  stick,  and  work  out  reasons  for  differ- 


NATUEE  STUDY. 


129 


eiice  in  temperature  of  different  seasons  and  parts  of  the  earth. 
Learn  to  read  thermometer  and  keep  temperature  record. 
Lessons  on  thermometer. 

Home  geography.  Local  products^  minerals,  lumber,  crops, 
live  stock,  manufactures  (industry  studies).  Used  at  home  or 
sent  away.  How  carried,  where,  what  returned.  Ideas  of 
commerce  and  transportation. 

Continue  and  connect  with  above,  work  on  surface  features 
of  neighborhood.  Eough  and  level  areas.  Streams  and  their 
'  work  and  influence,  especially  on  roadways,  commerce,  and 
travel.  Continue  to  develop  idea  of  map  and  its  uses  by 
teaching  and  plotting  local  geography.  Local  government, 
especially  parts  affecting  children.    Obedience  to  law. 

Elementary  geography  and  idea  of  state:  products,  surface 
features,  large  cities,  streams,  lakes,  industries,  etc.  Intro- 
duce in  very  general  way  larger  and  nearer  land  and  water 
bodies.  Teach  neighboring  states,  large  cities,  and  rivers. 
Simply,  ocean  commerce,  and  ideas  of  ports.  Stories  of  sea. 
Stories  of  primitive  people  and  people  of  other  lands,  becom- 
ing more  definite  as  to  location.    Large  cities  of  other  lands. 

Learn  to  distinguish  the  common  metals, — iron,  copper, 
zinc,  tin,  lead,  aluminum;  their  properties — melting,  bending, 
hardness,  malleability,  etc.,  and  simple  uses. 

Continue  and  enlarge  work  on  surface  features  of  vicinity. 
Effect  of  water  in  wearing  away,  carrying  and  depositing  soil. 
Stream  bed,  how  formed,  variety  in  fineness  of  material, 
roundness  of  boulders,  shape  of  broken  fragments  on  hill 
quarry  or  base  of  cliff.  Eelations  of  small  and  large  streams, 
source  of  water  between  rains,  springs,  freshets  and  the 
changes  they  make.  Here  connect  simple  lessons  on  density 
ov  floating  of  bodies,  and  ease  with  which  water  moves, 
smaller  and  larger  bodies.  What  sized  particles  are  carried 
away? 

Learn  best  moisture  content,  need  of  air,  and  loosening  of 
soil.  Simple  lessons  on  soaking  of  water  through  soil, — up, 
down,  and  sidewise.  Lessons  on  garden  tillage:  kind,  depth, 
when,  value,  relation  to  plant  roots  and  growth.  Learn  to 
distinguish  different  kinds  of  soil.    See  plant  work. 


130 


NATURE  STUDY. 


FouETH  Year. 

Common  Trees  and  Plants.  This  year  do  little  work  with 
trees^  but  study  vines  and  bush  fruits  and  ornamental  shrubs 
to  know  them  and  for  habits  of  growth  and  multiplication. 
Make  grape  cuttings  in  fall,  keep  till  spring,  then  plant, 
watch  spring  growth  of  grape.  Where  do  flowers  come, — old 
or  new  wood  ?  Basis  for  pruning.  Same  for  shrubs  and  fruit 
trees  but  no  work  on  pruning  fruit  trees.  In  spring  teach 
division  of  bush  fruits  for  more  plants.  Same  for  other  . 
plants  as  rhubarb,  canna,  etc.  Cutting  of  house  and  orna- 
mental plants. 

Garden.  This  year  the  individual  garden  may  be  begun  (or 
the  communal  may  be  continued  another  year).  Encourage 
home  gardening.  Start  plants  for  transplanting  inside,  as  last 
year.  Give  instructions  and  practice  in  planting  these  at 
home  and  school.  In  fall  study  especially  the  kind  of  vege- 
tables planted  last  year.  Winter  storing  and  care  of  seeds 
and  roots  for  next  year.  Give  exercises  in  testing  seeds  of 
various  kinds  for  purity  and  vitality, — use  field  crop  seeds. 
Value  of  good  seeds.  Weeds  and  their  harm.  How  scattered. 
Continue  work  on  seed  dispersal.  Methods  of  combating 
weeds.  In  connection  with  garden  work,  write  letters  for 
seed  catalogues,  plan  garden  as  to  cost,  number,  relation, 
value,  etc.,  of  plants  in  early  spring.  Introduce  practical 
p]"oblems  in  arithmetic  in  every  way  possible  here,  as  in  meas- 
uring beds,  rows,  computing  areas,  number  of  plants,  value, 
etc. 

If  this  mahes  too  much  worh  postpone  part  of  it  to  the  folloiv- 
ing  year  and  continue  communal  tvorh. 

Study  parts  of  flowers,  get  names  and  functions  of  stamens 
and  pistils,  pollination,  fertilization,  and  importance;  wind 
and  insect  pollination,  all  in  simple  way. 

Aquarium.  Continue  aquarium  work.  Eeview  frog  life 
and  study  toad  for  comparison.  Study  fish.  Eeview  aqua- 
rium work  for  food  and  enemies.  Study  life  from  egg  to 
adult  in  general  way.  Structure  and  fitness  for  water  life. 
Connect  with  fish  industry.    Study  fishing  methods:  great 


NATURE  STUDY. 


131. 


fishing  grounds,  kinds  caught,  cleaning,  and  shipping.  Use- 
to  introduce  some  new  ideas  and  locations  in  geography. 

Birds  and  Insects.  Study  birds  especially  from  the  eco- 
nomic standpoint.  Protection.  Where  migrants  spend  win- 
ter and  summer.  Connect  geography  of  these  lands  as  to 
location,  climate,  etc.  Special  study  of  a  flesh  eater, — hawk 
or  owl, — and  of  woodpecker. 

Insects:  special  attention  to  economic  aspect.  More  of 
structure  and  fitness  to  kind  of  life.  How  they  feed:  biting 
or  sucking,  on  what;  where  they  hide,  how  they  spend 
the  winter.  Work  out  in  breeding  cages  life  history  of  cab- 
bage worm  in  fall:  feeding,  growth,  life  cycle,  where  she 
deposits  eggs,  and  where  spends  winter,  simple  methods  of 
destruction.  In  spring  find  cocoons  and  watch  them  develop. 
Study  efl^ects  and  observe  habits  of  any  other  insect  that  offers, 
as  tomato  worm,  apple  worm,  borers,  clothes  moths,  squash 
bug. 

Domestic  Animals.  Make  study  of  horse:  structure,  kinds, 
care,  uses,  foods.  Connect  stories  of  famous  and  wild  horses. 
Study  hogs:  wild  kinds,  foods,  habits,  structure,  uses.  Con- 
UGct  with  packing  and  butchering  industry.  Methods  of  cur- 
ing meats,  shipping,  care  in  shops.  A^isit  meat  and  fish 
market.    Animal  stories,  especially  of  sea  animals. 

Geography.  Develop  idea  of  forest  and  prairie  regions. 
(Animal  industry  and  farming  of  prairie  in  elementary  way.) 
Lumbering  of  forest  region  in  more  detail:  kinds  of  trees 
used,  how^  handled,  where  sold.  Maple  sugar  industry  of 
north,  turpentine  of  south.  Eecall  study  of  rubber  of  last 
year.  Tanning  industry,  leather  and  shoe  making.  Visit 
mills  and  shops  if  possible. 

Continue  temperature  reports,  and  observations  of  sun's 
movements,  and  keep  records.  Watch  moon's  phases  and 
when  they  appear.  In  connection  with  sun's  movements, 
notice  seasons,  variation  in  length  of  day,  etc.  (In  a  simple 
v/ay.)    Do  not  attempt  astronomical  explanations. 

Circulation  of  air:  winds  and  ventilation.  Review  evapora- 
tion and  condensation  work  and  add  new  ideas.  Apply  to 
foregoing  and  work  on  storms  and  rainfall. 


132 


NATURE  STUDY. 


Develop  in  connection  with  product  and  industry  lesson, 
ideas  of  continents,  oceans,  countries,  islands,  peoples,  and 
races.  Study  land  and  water  forms,  surface  forms,  especially 
if  they  can  be  illustrated  in  the  neighborhood.  Teach  use  of 
streams  for  commerce  and  power.  Study  dams,  wheels,  and 
other  means  of  utilization  of  natural  power.  With  all  these 
parts  of  country  and  industries  show  our  connection  if  any. 

Get  a  few  minerals  and  ores  if  possible.  Study  mining 
and  smelting.  Uses  of  metals  studied  last  year,  varieties  of 
manufactured  iron,  and  difference.  Granite,  and  minerals  of 
v/hich  it  is  composed.  Means  of  disintegration.  Limestone, 
slate,  and  sandstone  if  possible.  Making,  slaking,  and  use  of 
lime;  also  cement  and  plaster  of  paris. 

Dissolve  salt,  sugar,  and  other  materials  in  water,  evaporate 
and  get  crystals.    Connect  with  soils  and  maple  sugar  work. 

From  study  of  rocks,  get  better  idea  of  soil  origin.  Agency 
of  water  (especially  in  dissolving  and  freezing),  plants,  ani- 
mals, in  soil  forming.  Kinds  of  soil  and  mixtures  of  these 
kinds.  Eise  of  water  in  soil  and  rate  of  soaking  into. 
Amount  of  water  held  by  different  soils.  Effects  upon  them 
v/hen  soaked  and  then  dried.  After  solution  work  above, 
catch  some  water  that  has  passed  through  the  soil  and  evap- 
orate to  show  minerals  held  in  solution.  Use  a  rich  garden 
soil. 

Plant  food  in  water  from  soil.    Air  in  soils:  its  value. 
Simple  work  on  relative  density,  buoyancy,  size  of  soil  par- 
ticles carried. 

Make  this  experimental  and  so  far  as  possible  let  the  pupils 
get  muscular  experience.  For  example,  let  them  try  to  hold 
a  cork,  a  small  block  of  wood,  a  stone  of  same  size  two  inches 
under  water;  let  them  try  to  push  an  empty  tin  cup  and  then 
a  quart  can  or  larger  vessel  under  water  without  first  filling  it. 

(This  year  should  complete  informal  geography.) 

Fifth  Year. 

In  the  first  four  years,  the  work  has  been  informal  and  with 
little  effort  at  system.    At  this  point  the  nature  study,  while 


NATUKE  STUDY. 


133 


it  still  covers  a  wide  range,  becomes  more  systematic  and  less 
informal  without  becoming  abstract  or  technical.  Informal 
geography  has  given  place  to  systematic  instruction  with  a 
textbook  basi?.  The  study  of  plant  life  and  the  school  gar- 
den come  to  have  a  more  definite  agricultural  purpose;  the 
bird  and  insect  study  are  taken  chiefly  in  the  economic  aspect. 
Elementary  physical  science  growing  out  of  informal  geog- 
raphy becomes  more  definite  and  attempts  to  cover  the  range 
of  the  phenomena  of  everyday  life. 

The  chief  caution  to  the  teacher  is:  Don't  take  this  work 
so  seriously  as  to  run  it  into  abstract  or  technical  channels. 
Keep  to  the  region  of  children's  experiences;  if  you  have  to 
bring  in  much  apparatus  it  is  a  good  sign  that  you  are  at- 
tempting high  school  work  prematurely. 

Plant  Life.  Observe  rings  and  methods  of  growth  of  trees. 
Use  of  bark.  How  trees  may  be  injured.  Learn  to  know  a 
few  of  the  more  common  woods  by  grains.  Difi'erence  in 
grain.  Uses  of  various  kinds  of  woods.  Source  of  kinds 
commonly  used  but  not  native.  Practical  care  of  the  woodlot 
and  young  trees:  start  seedlings.    Forest  fire  laws. 

Continue  study  of  bush  fruits  and  ornamental  shrubs  and 
propagation  by  layerings,  cuttings,  etc.,  care  and  culture. 
Make  special  study  of  strawberry:  habits,  peculiarities,  and 
culture.    Lessons  on  potting  plants  and  care  of  potted  plants. 

Time  and  method  of  planting,  and  care  of  garden  vegeta- 
bles and  flowers  in  home  and  about  yard. 

Make  special  study  of  the  potato:  structure  of  part  eaten, 
food  value,  how  they  propagate,  growth,  food  storage,  care, 
cultivation,  best  soil,  care  of  crop  after  harvesting.  l"se 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  State  College 
bulletins.  If  preferred,  the  squash  or  cucumbers  may  be 
substituted  for  the  sweet  potato.  Learn  all  you  can  of  mar- 
kets and  great  producing  regions.  Introduce  some  commer- 
cial geography  and  arithmetic.  (This  and  the  following  work 
will  need  to  be  taken  up  at  various  times  during  the  year.) 

Make  as  careful  and  complete  study  of  corn  this  year  as 
possible.    Begin  in  the  fall  with  stalk,  roots,  tassel,  ear,  etc. 


134 


NATURE  STUDY. 


Harvesting  and  storing.  In  winter:  kernel,  parts,  kinds  of 
corn  (good,  poor),  leading  to  seed  selection.  Uses  of. 
Planting  and  care.  Its  insect  and  other  enemies.  Include 
a  little  historical  and  geographic  work. 

Animal  Life.  Eeptiles  and  batrachians  as  opportunity 
offers. 

Eodents:  rats,  mice,  squirrels,  woodchucks.  Injurious 
habits.    Extent  of  damage  to  crops.    Means  of  destroying. 

Potato  beetle:  life  history,  injurious  effects,  destruction 
by  spraying.  Any  insect  enemies  of  corn  which  can  be 
found.  Study  communal  insects:  ants,  bees,  hornets.  Life 
histories  and  homes.    Economic  use. 

Garden.  The  garden  work  this  year  should  be  individual 
if  possible.  If  there  is  little  room,  let  the  vegetable  gardens 
be  individual  and  the  flower  or  ornamental  garden  a  com- 
munal garden.  Seeds  should  be  collected  in  the  fall,  tested 
for  vitality  and  purity  in  the  spring.  Each  pupil  plot  to 
scale  entire  garden:  study  seed  catalogue,  select  seeds,  talk 
over  kinds  of  plants  and  arrangement  in  garden,  etc.  This 
gives  an  opportunity  for  training  in  foresight,  management, 
ethics,  and  finances  as  well  as  in  garden  work.  Pupils  assist 
in  laying  out  garden,  prepare  their  ow^n  plot,  and  plant  their 
seeds,  following  directions.  Insist  on  orderliness  in  plant- 
ing and  later  care  of  garden.  Try  to  be  able  to  recognize  at 
sight  a  great  many  weeds  of  the  farm,  yard,  and  roadside; 
learn  their  habits,  means  of  multiplication,  and  distribution, 
and  how  best  destroyed.  If  there  is  room,  start  a  wild  gar- 
den of  native  plants. 

Soils.  Study  the  physical  composition  of  various  soils  of 
the  neighborhood:  humus,  clay,  loam,  sand,  etc.  Properties: 
do  some  soils  hold  water  better  than  others,  and  why?  Soil 
temperatures:  light  and  dark  soils;  wet  and  dry;  early  and 
late  soils.    Teach,  roughly,  crops  fitted  to  various  soil  types. 

Fundamental  principles  of  fertilizing  soils:  various  ways  in 
which  manure  is  of  value  to  soil. 

Prevention  of  loss  of  soil  by  washing:  by  trees,  grass,  and 
pioper  tillage.    Effect  of  loss  of  forest  cover  on  washing  of 


NATURE  STUDY. 


135 


soil.  Xote  gullies  made  by  washing  in  neighborhood  and 
have  children  observe. 

Elementary  Physical  Science.  Simple  machines:  levers, 
pulleys,  screw,  windlass,  windmills,  and  water  wheels.  Illus- 
trate by  common  articles  about  the  house,  as,  for  instance, 
levers  by  the  crowbar. 

Friction:  its  values  and  disadvantages.  Means  of  reducing 
friction. 

Sixth  Year. 

Plant  Life.  Continue  work  on  structure  and  growth  of 
trees:  care  of  seeds  and  seedlings,  methods  of  reforestation, 
care  of  the  woodlot. 

Care  for  grape  and  other  cuttings  made  last  year.  Show 
hew  budding  -and  grafting  are  done.  Have  pupils  make  their 
own  materials.  Practice  on  twigs  indoors;  later  do  the  work 
outdoors. 

Make  a  hot-bed  in  which  to  start  plants  this  year;  if  possi- 
ble, outside;  if  not,  make  one  in  a  box  inside  (see  drawings). 
The  hot-bed  may  be  of  any  length  but  should  not  be  over 
four  feet  wide  or  the  children  Avill  be  unable  to  reach  half 
way  across.  Let  them  dig  the  pit,  make  the  frame  (intro- 
duce arithmetic  again),  and  other  work  if  possible.  Espe- 
cially let  them  turn  the  manure  and  care  for  temperature, 
ventilating,  and  watering.  Have  them  read  directions  for 
making  a  hot-bed  in  books  or  agricultural  bulletins.  Use  the 
hot-bed  for  starting  plants  for  the  school  or  home  garden  or 
for  sale. 

Make  plot,  get  seed,  plan,  prepare,  and  care  for  garden  as 
was  done  last  year.  This  year  more  attention  should  be 
given  to  new  vegetables,  to  fertilizing,  and  reasons  for  culti- 
vating. A  common  experimental  plot  in  which  the  class 
ivy  some  vegetables  or  plants  new  to  them  would  be  help- 
ful. If  possible  continue  the  wild  flower  garden,  introduc- 
ing into  it  all  the  chief  plants  of  importance  from  the  neigh- 
borhood. This  is  especially  valuable  in  cities,  where  beside 
helping  children  in  this  grade  to  recognize  the  common  wild 


136 


NATURE  STUDY. 


plants, — sumac,  alder,  clematis,  golden  rod,  Solomon^s  seal, 
etc.,  especially  spring  flowers, — it  will  furnish  materials  for 
tlie  teachers  of  lower  grades. 

Study  a  legume,  as  clover:  its  growth,  seed,  roots,  care, 
fertilization,  and  growth  of  seed,  harvesting,  value  as  a  crop, 
value  to  land,  tubercles  on  roots  and  their  work  in  a  simple 
way.  Com.pare  other  common  plants  throughout.  Learn  to 
know  some  other  legumes.  Make  a  review  of  kinds  of  plant 
roots,  depth,  etc.  List  after  discussion  all  plants  studied  in 
previous  years  in  the  right  group  as  to  roots. 

Study  fungi:  toadstools,'  molds,  and  yeast.  Peculiarities 
of  growth,  reproduction,  distribution,  and  life.  Apply  this 
year  especially  to  distribution  of  molds  and  germs  in  home, 
mold  in  cupboard,  on  fruits,  decay  of  fruits,  souring  of  milk, 
^"working"  of  fruits,  use  of  yeast.  Compare  these  plants  with 
flowering  plants.  (See  also  Physiology  and  Hygiene.) 
Merely  compare  a  few  plant  diseases,  as  smut,  blackknot,  rust, 
which  will  be  studied  next  year. 

Animal  Life.  Teach  bird  and  game  laws.  Teach  the  rea- 
sons for  these  laws:  wild  creatures  as  part  of  the  beauty  of 
nature, — what  would  the  world  be  without  them, — connect 
with  reading  of  "Black  Beauty^^  and  inculcation  of  humane 
treatment;  birds  as  destroyers  of  insects  and  the  most  impor- 
tant friends  of  the  farmer,  fruit  and  flower  grower. 

Insects  which  are  a  menace  to  trees  and  crops.  Preven- 
tion by  spraying,  burning,  etc.  Connect  with  last  yearns 
study  of  potato  beetle.  Gypsy  and  brown-tail  moths:  life 
history,  identify  nests  and  caterpillars  for  the  latter  espe- 
cially; methods  of  control;  organize  boys  to  cooperate  with 
town  officers  on  a  basis  of  payment  for  brown-tail  moths' 
nests,  if  possible.    Principle  of  parasitism. 

Garden.  The  work  laid  out  for  fifth  year  should  be  car- 
ried on  in  this  and  in  the  subsequent  years  in  much  the  same 
way,  the  range  and  efficiency  of  the  work  increasing  as  the 
pupils  grow  older. 

Soils.  Clay  and  heavy  muck  soils,  study  effects  of  wetting 
and  drying,  puddling  and  mixing  while  wet  and  then  allow- 


NATURE  STUDr. 


137 


ing  to  dry,  tillage  of  such  soils,  uses  of  clay  and  muck  on 
sandy  soils.  Clay  for  brick  and  pottery  making,  effect  upon 
these  soils  of  adding  manure,  sand,  and  lime.  Eeview  water, 
movement  in  these  soils.  Compare  with  them  sand  and 
loam  as  to  moisture,  retention,  and  movements,  baking  and 
other  physical  properties.  Learn  sweet  and  sour  soils,  treat- 
ment. 

Elemmtary  Physical  Scien<:e.  Study  pressure  in  fluids  in 
a  simple  way.  "Suction":  air  has  weight,  pressure  of  water 
due  to  height  of  column,  city  water  works  system,  arrange- 
ment of  parts,  siphon,  pumps.  Floating  of  bodies:  boats, 
ships,  balloons.  Pressure  on  bodies  below  water:  diving  bell. 
Compression  of  air:  popguns,  airguns,  bellows,  football,  fire 
engines,  gas  tanks,  hydraulic  press,  ventilating  systems.  The 
spirit  level  and  leveling:  compare  leveling  by  the  plumb-bob. 

Begin  chemistry  here  with  a  few  simple  experiments. 
Heat  from  chemical  action,  as  slaking  lime,  diluting  sulphuric 
acid.  Distinguish  acids,  alkalis,  and  salts.  Action  of  acids 
c-n  metals,  minerals,  etc.  Effects  of  lime  and  wood  ashes  on 
sour  soils.  Some  simple  chemical  combinations  and  the 
formation  of  new  substances  as,  for  instance,  iron  filings  and 
sulphur  heated  together  in  a  test  tube;  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
and  copper;  carbonic  acid  gas  (from  the  breath)  and  lime 
water;  suffocating  odor  from  burning  sulphur  match,  due 
to  combination  of  oxygen  in  the  air  with  sulphur, — and  many 
others  which  the  alert  teacher  can  work  up,  especially  if  she 
is  within  reach  of  a  high  school  laboratory. 

Seyexth  Year. 

Plant  Life.  This  year  emphasize  tree  and  orchard  work. 
Tree  planting:  arrangement  in  orchard.  Tillage.  Plant  dis- 
eases. Insect  enemies.  Sprays  and  spraying.  Pruning  and 
care  of  wounds.  Eeview  budding  and  grafting.  Picking, 
packing,  care,  and  sale  of  fruit.  Removal  of  injured  fruit 
and  general  care  of  orchard. 

Tillage  lessons:  good  and  poor  tillage;  benefits  from  good 
tillage.  Drainage:  need  and  uses.  Teach  by  indoor  experi- 
ments as  much  as  possible. 


138 


NATURE  STUDY. 


Study  farm  machinery  of  this  and  other  lands.  When 
possible  contrast  old  and  new.  Pictures  and  descriptions 
must  take  place  of  objects  to  large  extent.  Plows,,  cultiva- 
tors, and  harrows.  Harvesting,  mowing,  and  threshing  ma- 
chinery, manucre-spreaders,  sprayers,  windmills,  gasoline 
engines,  etc.  Catalogues  from  implement  firms  will  help 
here. 

Teach  forest  fire  laws  and  regulations.  Dangers  and  losses 
from  forest  fires. 

Elementary  Physical  Science.  Behavior  of  magnets  and 
magnetic  needle.  Simple  phenomena  of  static  electricity: 
glass  or  amber  objects  and  pith  balls  or  scraps  of  paper, — 
snap  from  rubber  comb  when  passed  through  the  hair. 

Set  up  a  simple  cell  and  show  the  current  from  it. 

Obtain  one  or  more  dry  cells  and  some  insulated  wire. 
With  these  materials  can  be  shown:  different  ways  of  con- 
necting cells,  insulation,  making  and  breaking  the  current, 
push  buttons,  electro  magnets,  electric  bells,  telegraph  in- 
struments, and  (if  a  small  lamp  be  obtained)  the  incandescent 
light.  Also  there  can  be  shown  in  principle  how  wiring  is 
done  for  call  bells,  household  electric  lights,  etc. 

Preparation  of  carbon  dioxid  and  lime  water.  Test  for 
carbon  dioxid.  Chemistry  of  combustion:  change  of  solids  to 
vapor  and  gases.  In  connection  with  chemistry  of  combus- 
tion use  or  call  attention  to  various  fuels  and  their  values: 
gas,  oil,  alcohol,  w^ood,  coal,  etc.  Preparation  of  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  hydrogen.  An  acquaintance  with  all  chemicals 
used  in  this  work.  Apply  as  much  as  possible  to  daily  expe- 
rience. 

Have  each  person  in  this  grade  write  to  the  State  College 
and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  at 
least  one  bulletin  from  each  and  after  reading  make  a  report 
cf  the  bulletin  to  the  class. 

Garden.    See  Sixth  Grade. 

EiGnxii  Year. 

Study  horse  and  coiv,  dairying  and  general  economy  of  live- 
stock on  the  farm. 


NATURE  STUDY. 


139 


Horses:  learn  names  of  parts,  points  of  a  good  horse,  com- 
moner faults  and  blemishes.  Types  of  horses:  draft  (light 
and  heaY}"),  drivers,  etc.  Principles  of  harness  and  fittings. 
Care  of  horse  on  road  and  in  barn.  Learn  meaning  of  pedi- 
gree and  common  breeds. 

Cattle:  learn  points  of  dairy  and  beef  types  of  cow.  Some 
breeds  of  each  type.  Good  and  poor  cows  of  each  type. 
How  to  test  the  cows.    Care,  feeding,  housing,  cleanliness. 

Feeds  and  their  values.  Harvesting,  curing,  storing,  and 
feeding  of  feeds.  A  balanced  ration:  its  value.  In  care  of 
animals,  planning  of  barns  and  buildings  may  be  taught. 
Plan,  draw  to  scale,  work  out  lumber  needed,  costs,  etc.,  as 
time  will  permit  or  interest  of  pupils  will  warrant. 

Sanitation  of  house,  barn,  and  farmyard. 

Dairying.  For  different  purposes  (connect  with  cattle 
work).  Care  of  milk,  cream,  butter.  Study  of  machinery 
for  small  dairy  on  farm.  Selling  and  shipping  milk  and  but- 
ter.   Eeview  work  on  bacteria. 

In  all  this  work  introduce  practical  problems  for  illustra- 
tions wherever  possible. 

Care  of  manures:  value,  how,  when,  and  amount  to  apply. 
Fertilizers:  different  kinds  and  what  they  furnish.  Value  to 
plants  and  soils.  Sources.  Application  to  fields  and  differ- 
ent crops. 

Continue  work  in  electricty  begun  last  year.  Pay  atten- 
tion to  and  study  to  imderstand  new  inventions  of  interest, 
scientific  explorations,  discoveries,  etc.  Learn  something  of 
great  scientists  whose  names  are  met  with. 

Some  elementary  work  on  light:  travels  in  straight  lines, 
variation  in  intensity  with  distance  from  source,  shadows, 
eclipses,  reflection  and  mirrors  of  various  kinds,  when  they 
reflect,  refraction,  lenses,  and  apertures.  Prism  and  spec- 
trum. Teach  lens  work  in  connection  with  eye  and  care  of 
eyes;  the  stereopticon,  magnifying  glass,  and  camera. 

Chemistry  of  respiration  and  digestion  in  an  elementary 
way.  Tests  for  starch,  sugar,  oil,  protein.  In  connection 
with  these  tests  simple  chemistry  of  foods,  cooking,  and  diges- 
tion may  be  taught.    Illustrate  plant  fiber.    Test  various 


140 


NATURE  STUDY. 


foods  and  animal  feeds  for  these.  Use  these  experiments  in 
connection  with  other  work  of  grade. 

Have  each  pupil  in  this  grade  send  for  and  use  bulletins 
as  in  the  Seventh  Grade. 

Garden.    See  Sixth  Grade. 

REFEiKENCES. 

The  list  of  books  helpful  in  this  work  is  so  large  that  space 
forbids  any  but  a  very  incomplete  list.  Holtz's  Nature  Study^ 
Scribners,  and  Coulter  and  Patterson's  Practical  Nature 
Study,  Appleton,  each  contain  extensive  and  excellent 
bibliographies.  All  publishers  will  gladly  send  lists  of  books 
to  teachers  if  requested  to  do  so.  Every  teacher  should  send 
at  once  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington^  D.  C,  for  Bulletins  186  and  195,  which  will  be 
found  useful.  The  first  five  books  will  be  found  especially 
helpful.  A  good  text  in  botany,  zoology,  physics,  chemistry, 
•  agriculture,  and  geography  should  be  in  the  personal  library 
of  every  teacher. 

Practical  Nature  Study,  Coulter  &  Patterson  

  Appleton 

Nature  Study,  Holtz   Scribners 

Nature  Study  and  Life,  Hodge  Ginn 

Principles  of  Plant  Culture,  Goff  

 University  Cooperative  Co.,  Madison,  Wis. 

The  First  Book  of  Farming,  Goodrich  

 Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 


Foundations  of  Botany,  Bergens  Appleton 

Textbook  of  Botany,  Coulter  Appleton 

Plants,  Coulter   Appleton 

Introduction  to  Botany,  Stevens  Heath 

Botany,  Bailey   MacM. 

Lessons  with  Plants,  Bailey   MacM. 

Seed  Dispersal,  Beal   Ginn 

Seed  Babies,  Morley   Ginn 

Seed  Travelers,  Weed   Ginn 


Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  ]\ro]ds  in  tlic  Home,  Conn.  .  . 
  Ginn 


NATUKE  STUDY. 


141 


Principles  of  Vegetable  G-ardening^  Bailey  .  .MacM. 

The  Nursery  Book,  Bailey   MacM. 

A  First  Book  of  Forestry,  Both  Ginn 

A  First  Course  in  Biology,  Bailey  &  Coleman.  .  .  . 

  MacM. 

Zoolog)',  Linville  &  Kelley   Ginn 

Natural  History,  Hornaday   Scribners 

Elementarv'  Zoology,  Kellogg   Holt 

Animal  Life,  Jordan  &  Kellogg  Appleton 

Familiar  Animals  and  Their  Wild  Kindred,  Mon- 

teith  A.  B.  C. 


Wilderness  Babies,  Schwartz  L.  B.  &  Co. 

Farm  Animals,  Wilcox  .  .  .  .Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Plumb .  .  Ginn 

Handbook  of  Birds  of  Xortheastern  North  Amer- 
ica, Chapman   Appleton 

First  and  Second  Book  of  Birds,  Miller.  .H.  M.  Co. 

Birds  of  Village  and  Field,  Merriam  .  .  .  .H.  M.  Co. 

Bird  Charts,  Audobon  Prang  Ed.  Co. 

Bird  Chart,  Mumford  ...  A.  W.  ]\Iumford,  Chicago 

Studies  in  Insect  Life,  Hunter  Crane  &  Co. 

Life  Histories  of  American  Insects,  Weed  .  .MacM. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetables,  Chittenden   

 Orange  Judd  &  Co. 

Economic  Entomology,  Smith  Lippincott 

Feeding  Farm  Animals,  Shaw  .  .  Orange  Judd  &  Co. 

Agriculture  for  Beginners,  Burke tt,  Stevens  &  Hill 
  Ginn 

Practical  Agriculture,  Wilkinson   A.  B.  C. 

Elements  of  Agriculture,  Warren  MacM. 

Eural  School  Agriculture,  Davis,  Orange  Judd  &  Co. 

Soils,  Fletcher  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Soils,  Burkett   Orange  Judd  &  Co. 

Eocks  and  Minerals,  Fairbanks  Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

Home  Geography  for  Primary  Grades,  Fairbanks.  . 
 Ed.  Pub.  Co. 

Home  Geography,  Traeger  Appleton 

Chemistry  of  Common  Life,  Johnston  .  .  .Appleton 


CHAPTER  XVL 

HANDWOKK  AND  MANUAL  TEAINING. 

The  central  purpose  of  handwork  is  educational  rather 
than  utilitarian.  It  is  intended  to  be  continuous  with  the 
kindergarten,  although  it  is  not  necessary  that  there  should 
he  a  kindergarten  as  preliminary  to  it.  It  is  valuable  because 
it  serves  as  a  partial  modern  substitute  for  the  handwork 
which  all  children  of  earlier  generations  had  on  the  farm  and 
in  the  household,  and  which  in  itself  was  of  profound  educa- 
tional value.  It  is  valuable  because  it  rounds  out  education 
by  training  a  child  in  the  use  of  his  hands.  If  well  done  it 
reacts  on  other  school  work  by  improving  the  quality  of  such 
w^ork,  especially  in  the  case  of  arithmetic. 

It  is  commonly  supposed  that  ^^manual  training"  is  a  term 
limited  to  the  carpentry  of  the  upper  grammar.  On  the  con- 
trary, manual  training  can  and  should  begin  in  the  first  grade, 
where  cutting  and  pasting  is  just  as  truly  and  just  as  etfec- 
tively  manual  training  as  is  the  wood  work  of  the  upper 
grammar. 

It  is,  of  course,  desirable  that  a  special  teacher  should  be 
employed,  but  such  a  teacher  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 
The  regular  teacher  who  is  enterprising  and  intelligent  can 
get  results  which  are  far  better  than  none  at  all,  and  the 
graduate  of  normal  schools  of  the  grade  of  Plymouth,  who 
have  had  regular  instruction  in  manual  training,  should  be 
expected  to  conduct  the  work  without  difficulty. 

The  course  here  outlined  is  merely  suggestive  of  what  can 
be  done  in  every  school.    It  is  not  worked  out  to  the  extent . 
of  detail  needed  in  a  city  system  under  a  regular  teacher. 


142 


HANDWORK  AND  MANUAL  TRAINING. 


143 


First  and  Second  Years. 

I.  Freehand  cutting  and  pasting. 

Materials:  white  and  colored  papers  and  scissors. 

Forms:  flowers,  leaves,  fruits,  vegetables,  house,  barn, 
house  furnishings,  animals. 

Illustrating  stories  and  incidents  of  child  life.  See  also 
expressional  language,  history,  drawing,  and  arithmetic  for 
correlation  and  for  material  for  illustration. 

XoTE. — Do  not  give  pupils  figures  outlined  in  pencil  by 
the  teacher,  which  they  are  to  cut  out  following  the  teacher's 
lines.  Also  avoid  mere  cutting  out  of  figures  from  printed 
sheets,  such  as  fashion  plates.  Sometimes,  as  for  instance  in 
the  geography  of  the  lower  grammar,  such  work  has  a  value 
entirely  apart  from  manual  training.  Here  it  is  much  bet- 
ter to  accept  the  child's  crudest  efforts  at  representing  objects 
by  paper  cutting.  They  are  of  much  more  value,  education- 
ally, than  the  more  finished  work,  because  they  represent  an 
activity  which  is  capable  of  growth. 

II.  Cardboard. 

Furnishings  of  doll's  house,  pilgrim's  house,  Dutch  wind- 
mill, cradle,  and  similar  objects  familiar  to  the  life  of  chil- 
dren and  correlations  with  the  history  stories,  nature,  etc.,  of 
this  year.  Observe  the  same  principles  as  in  paper  cutting. 
(See  Xote.)  Allow  the  children  the  widest  liberty  of  inven- 
tion possible.  Eemember  that  you  are  not  training  them  to 
be  experts  in  making  cardboard  dolFs  furniture  but  rather 
are  allowing  them  to  make  doll's  furniture  in  order  that  they 
may  acquire  power  to  do  something  more  important.  On 
the  other  hand,  avoid  the  opposite  extreme  of  allowing  the 
pupils  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  slovenliness. 

III.  Clay -modeling. 

Fruits,  vegetables,  animals,  and  other  familiar  objects. 

Precisely  the  same  principles  may  be  followed  as  in  the 
case  of  paper  cutting.  The  chief  difference  between  the  two 
is  that  modeling  calls  for  the  use  of  different  muscles,  used  in 
a  different  way,  and,  therefore,  a  new  means  of  expression. 


141 


HANDWOKK  AND  MANUAL  TRAINING. 


Clay  can  be  obtained  from  the  regular  dealers  in  supplies, 
or  often  from  a  nearby  exposed  clay  bank. 

Third  and  Fourth  Years. 

I.  Cutting  and  'pasting. 

II.  Cardboard. 

Work  of  lower  primary  continued.  The  children  in  these 
grades  will  naturally  come  to  the  power  of  doing  more  skill- 
ful work,  but  yet  skill  is  not  the  thing  to  be  aimed  for.  Be 
sure  that  you  secure  from  each  pupil  his  best  effort.  That 
will  be  sufficient.  Attainment  is  of  little  consequence  here; 
effort  on  the  pupil's  part  counts  for  everything. 

III.  Eafjia. 

Braiding  and  sewing  into  mats,  baskets,  hats. 

lY.    Reed  worlc. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  for  basketr}^ 

Y.  Weaving. 

Designing  and  weaving  simple  fabrics  on  hand  loom. 
Looms  and  materials  can  be  purchased  at  little  expense  from 
the  regular  supply  houses. 

Fifth  Year. 

During  this  year  it  may  be  found  well  to  begin  to  differen- 
tiate the  work  for  boys  and  girls,  although  this  is  not  impera- 
tive. 

I,  Rafpa,  weaving,  and  reed  worh. 

Continued  and  adapted  both  to  stage  of  pupil's  develop- 
ment and  the  new  possibilities  of  correlation  in  the  work  of 
this  year. 

II.  Leather. 

Small  articles  such  as  pen^Wpers,  book  covers,  etc. 

References  for  the  teacher. 

Industrial  Social  Education,  Baldwin  

 Milton,  Bradley  &  Co. 


WOODWORKING,  SEWING,  AND  COOKING.  145 


Place  of  Industries  in  Elementary  Education,  Dopp 
 University  of  Chicago  Press 

Seat  Work  and  Industrial  Occupation,  Gilman  & 
Williams  MacM. 

WOODWOEKIXG,  SEWIXG,  AXD  COOKIXG. 

The  manual  training  of  the  three  upper  grades  becomes 
more  specific  and  definite  in  character  so  far  as  the  materials 
are  concerned  than  the  previous  work.  Woodwork  for  the 
boys  and  sewing  and  cooking  for  the  girls  are  recommended. 
The  purely  educational  purpose  is  still  dominant;  the  devel- 
opment of  expert  skill  has  no  place.  The  elementary  school 
cannot  assume  to  be  competent  to  train  efficient  carpenters 
nor  cooks  nor  seamstresses.  It  would  not  probably  be  desir- 
able even  if  they  could.  That  is  the  business  of  the  trade 
school.  These  subjects  as  parts  of  the  public  elementary 
school  program  are  valuable  because  (1)  they  develop  some  of 
the  higher  coordinations  of  brain  and  muscles;  (2)  because 
they  satisfy  a  particular  instinct  for  self-expression  which 
ripens  at  about  this  time  (a  boy  who  does  not  begin  to  use 
these  tools  will  probably  always  be  clumsy  with  his  hands;  a 
girl  who  does  not  begin  to  cook  and  sew  now  w^ill  usually 
never  do  so  with  pleasure  nor  to  profit);  and  (3)  because  they 
put  pupils  in  concrete  relations  with  the  working  industrial 
basis  of  the  modern  world. 

The  cautions  implied  above  and  stated  in  connection  with 
the  earlier  parts  of  this  curriculum  should  be  observed  by  the 
teacher.  That  is  to  say:  give  the  boy  the  privilege  of  con- 
structing some  article  of  interest  to  him  which  he  intends  to 
use  and  which  is  within  his  powers  rather  than  holding  him 
to  practice  on  sawing,  planing,  and  making  joints  until  he  is 
perfect  in  these  things;  start  the  girl  upon  some  article  within 
her  powers  rather  than  keep  her  on  abstract  exercises  until 
she  can  do  them  perfectly.  By  the  former  treatment  you 
have  left  room  for  both  boy  and  girl  to  grow  indefinitely;  by 


146 


WOODWORKING. 


the  latter  you  would  fix  them  at  a  definite  point  of  skill 
which  might  improve  within  its  narrow  limits,  but  which 
would  leave  them  incapable  of  growth  in  this  kind  of  intel- 
ligence. The  former  can  produce  some  degree  of  industrial 
intelligence,  but  not  expert  skill;  the  latter  expert  skill  at 
the  expense  of  intelligence.  The  former  belongs  in  the 
school;  the  latter  to  the  apprentice  class  in  the  shop. 

Equipment  for  woodworking  for  a  class  of  twenty  costs 
about  two  hundred  dollars,  exclusive  of  fitting  up  room;  crude 
but  serviceable  equipment  can  be  managed  for  much  less. 
Equipment  for  sewing  room  and  kitchen  for  the  elementary 
school  will  cost  one  hundred  dollars  or  less. 

Note  particidarlif  that  a  regular  special  teacher  is  not  a 
necessity  except  in  the  larger  towns  and  cities,  and  there 
only  for  administrative  reasons.  Graduates  of  the  Plymouth 
Normal  School  should  be  entirely  competent  to  handle  the 
woodworking,  and  presently  the  school  will  be  able  to  prepare 
all  graduates  for  teaching  sewing  and  cooking  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools. 

WOODWOEKINa. 
Sixth  Ye,ae. 

I.  Eequire  each  boy,  before  beginning  Avork  on  the  article 
v/hich  he  wishes  to  make,  to  prepare  a  sketch,  and  details  if 
needed  (not  a  working  drawing),  showing  his  idea  and  how 
he  intends  to  work  it  out;  to  figure  all  dimensions  and  the 
stock  needed  for  construction.  In  a  word,  require  him  to 
form  the  habit  of  judging  beforehand  where  he  is  coming 
out. 

The  teacher  should  decide  whether  a  given  project  brought 
in  by  the  pupil  is  or  is  not  within  the  pupil's  powers.  Do 
not  allow  pupils  to  undertake  work  upon  which  they  are 
bound  to  fail. 

II.  Tools:  the  rule  and  pencil,  try  square,  knife,  saw, 
small  plane,  chisel,  ])it  and  brace,  draw  shave  and  spoke  shave, 
nnd  hammer.  The  teacher  will  instruct  in  the  proper 
liandling  and  use  of  each. 


WOODWOEKING. 


147 


III.  Models  suggested:  penholder,  plant  stick  and  marker, 
cord  winder,  simple  boxes  for  various  purposes,  bird  houses, 
sled,  cart. 

The  above  are  purely  suggestive,  as  showing  the  proper 
scope  of  the  work  of  the  year.  In  practice,  the  class  ought 
to  be  led  to  suggest  its  own  models  according  to  the  felt  needs 
of  individuals, — for  instance,  nearly  all  boys  of  this  grade 
will  think  they  want  a  sled  of  some  kind. 

Eequire  of  each  his  best  effort.  Allow  no  slovenly  habits 
to  creep  in. 

Sevexth  Year. 

I.  See  remarks  (I)  under  sixth  year  work.  During  the 
year  introduce  simple  blue-print  working  drawings  and  teach 
the  boys  to  follow  the  working  directions.  Note  especially 
that  all  work  undertaken  must  be  planned,  sketched,  and 
figured  by  the  boys  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  teacher  before 
being  touched  with  a  tool. 

II.  Tools:  the  tools  of  the  sixth  year  with  the  addition  of 
the  marking  gauge,  gouge  and  graving  tools,  larger  chisels, 
special  forms  of  saws,  planes,  glue  pot,  etc.  See  note  (II) 
under  sixth  year. 

III.  Models  suggested:  pen  tray,  bracket  shelf,  bill  file, 
drawer  pull,  water  mill,  book  rack,  coat  hanger,  plant  stand, 
etc.  Eead  carefully  comments  at  beginning  of  chapter  and 
especially  (III)  under  sixth  year. 

Eighth  Year. 

I.  See  remarks  under  sixth  and  seventh  years  and  care- 
fully observ^e.  Tlie  boys  can  now  work  up  some  of  their 
simpler  sketches  ibto  working  drawings;  and  for  this  pur- 
pose they  should  be  required  to  construct  their  own  drawing 
boards  and  T  squares. 

II.  Tools:  same  as  last  year  with  the  addition  of  the  com- 
monly used  tools  of  the  cabinet  maker  which  have  not 
hitherto  been  mentioned;  also  wood  lathe,  either  foot  or 
power. 


148 


SEWING. 


III.  Models:  largely  cabinet  and  furniture  making.  Con- 
struction of  bookcases  and  other  cabinets  needed  in  the 
schoolhouse;  construction  of  similar  needed  at  home.  Fur- 
niture making  and  repairing, — review  reed  and  leather  work 
and  extend  for  application  to  chair  seating  and  reseating. 
The  work  of  the  year  might  be  characterized  as  the  con- 
struction and  repair  of  those  articles  of  furniture  in  common 
use  in  the  school  and  the  home  which  are  within  the  powers 
of  the  pupils.  Connect  with  the  nature  study  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades.  The  boy  of  fourteen  who  cannot  do  a 
respectable  piece  of  tinkering  about  the  house  when  called 
upon  is  on  the  road  to  failure  in  life. 

The  purpose  of  sewing  corresponds  closely  to  that  of  wood- 
working for  boys,  and  much  the  same  principles  should  be  ob- 
served in  laying  out  and  teaching  courses  under  this  curricu- 
lum. See  preliminary  notes  on  manual  training  and  also  notes 
before  the  beginning  of  outlines  for  sixth  year.  A  differ- 
ence is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  girls  will  probably  put 
tiieir  sewing  to  immediate  practical  or  technical  use  and  for 
that  reason  more  attention  to  the  development  of  skill  as 
SL'ch  is  justified. 

In  the  teacher's  purpose  and  instruction,  two  extremes  are 
particularly  to  be  avoided.  In  the  first  place  do  not  attempt 
to  turn  out  pupils  capable  of  at  once  taking  places  for  hire  as 
seamstresses.  You  cannot  do  it  anyhow.  That  is  the  busi- 
ness of  the  girls'  trade  school.  In  the  second  place,  do  not 
attempt  work  which  is  beyond  the  capacities  of  girls  of  gram- 
mar school  age  and  which  properly  belongs  in  the  domestic 
arts  curriculum  of  the  secondary  school,  such,  for  instance, 
as  designing  and  drafting  garments,  the  study  of  fabrics  and 
textile  machinery;  or,  in  cooking,  more  than  the  merest  ele- 
ments of  the  chemistry  of  cooking  or  domestic  economy. 
Pupils  may  seem  to  produce  results  in  such  higher  work,  but 
usually  they  will  be  found  to  have  been  mere  copyists. 


SEWING. 


149 


Sixth  Yeak. 

I.  Basting,  backstitcliing,  overcasting,  hemming,  over- 
handing,  feather  stitch,  catch  stitch;  applications  to  various 
seams. 

II.  Buttonholes,  patches,  and  stocking  darn.  Instruction 
in  right  method  of  handling  work. 

III.  Suggested  models:  apron,  hemming  towels,  pillow 
slips,  flannel  skirt.  As  in  the  case  of  woodwork,  which  see, 
no  specific  routine  of  models  should  be  adhered  to.  Every 
girl  should  have  some  article  or  several  articles  which  she 
herself  needs  or  which  are  needed  at  home,  which  are  within 
her  powers  at  this  time,  and  from  the  first  such  ought  to  fur- 
nish the  basis  of  work.  Without  this  close,  concrete  relation 
to  experience  the  sewing  will  be  likely  to  prove  useless.  Note 
particularly  that  every  girl  from  the  first  should  be  required 
tfi  sketch  the  article  she  proposes  to  make,  to  estimate  cloth 
required,  and  to  figure  the  cost. 

Sevexth  Yeae. 

I.  Hemstitching,  French  and  fell  seams,  white  flannel 
darn,  cashmere  darn,  neck  piece,  cutting  and  fitting  bias 
band. 

II.  Cutting  from  pattern. 

III.  Suggested  models,  in  addition  to  those  of  the  sixth 
year:  hemstitched  pillow  slips,  underclothes,  waists,  and 
skirts.  See  note  (III)  on  sixth  year  and  observe  carefully. 
Every  home  can  readily  furnish,  and  every  mother  will  be 
glad  to  furnish,  an  abundance  of  actual  sewing  and  darning 
as  the  basis  of  the  school  work,  as  soon  as  she  finds  that  her 
daughter  can  be  trusted  with  the  work  at  school.  Here  is 
an  opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  use  her  school  as  an  addi- 
tional force  in  social  betterment. 

Eighth  Year. 

I.  Use  of  sewing  machine  and  attachments. 

II.  Cutting  to  pattern  and  taking  measurements. 


150 


COOKING. 


III.  Study  of  structure  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  other 
fabrics. 

IV.  Laundering  and  cleaning  dress  goods. 

V.  Simple  dressmaking  and  sewing  upon  garments  from 
home  as  in  VI  and  VII.    See  notes. 

COOKING. 

See  notes  on  woodworking  and  sewing. 

Seyekth  Year. 

I.  Care  and  cleaning  of  range,  sink,  floor,  refrigerator, 
garbage  pail,  cabinets,  and  utensils.  Constant  instruction  in 
the  sanitation  of  kitchen,  pantry,  and  environment. 

II.  Principles  of  construction  and  operation  of  coal  or 
wood  range;  draft  and  regulation  of  same  for  different  kinds 
of  fire;  the  oven  and  movement  of  hot  air  currents  about  it. 
Gas  or  blueflame  range;  method  of  vaporization  of  kerosene 
and  gasoline  and  control  of  the  same,  explosive  mixture, 
principle  of  the  Bunsen  flame,  air  supply,  and  correction  uf 
flame  "striking  back."  Laying  fire  and  making  range  ready 
for  cooking. 

III.  Eight  handling  of  measures  and  other  utensils. 

IV.  Cooking:  general  principles  to  be  observed  in  the 
cooking  of  proteids,  carbohydrates,  and  fats,  taught  by  con- 
crete illustration. 

Preparation  of  cereals,  light  and  hot  breads,  simple  meats, 
fish,  cakes,  and  vegetables. 

V.  Setting  table  and  serving. 

VI.  As  the  work  progresses,  in  this  as  in  woodworking 
and  in  sewing,  the  teacher  should  make  every  effort  to  relate 
it  correctly  to  some  regular  experience  in  the  household  or 
in  the  school;  the  preparation  of  food  which  is,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  to  be  eaten.  In  some  schools  it  is  possible  for 
the  girls  to  carry  on  a  noon  lunch  enterprise  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  teacher.  This  is  especially  advantageous  in  that 
it  gives  a  chance  for  real  study  of  the  economy  end.  In 


COOKING. 


151 


other  cases,  a  little  enterprise  will  make  neighborhood  co- 
operation possible.  One  school  has  carried  on  a  regular 
preserving  business  in  the  fall  term  by  notifying  neighbors 
and  friends  that  the  class  would  preserve  fruit  free  of  charge 
if  furnished  the  raw  materials.  The  same  school  has  at 
other  times  prepared  meals  upon  being  furnished  the  raw  ma- 
terials and  sent  out  the  cooked  product. 

Eighth  Year. 

I.  Eeview  and  repeat  I-III  and     from  seventh  year. 

II.  Designing  menus  for  different  meals,  figuring  cost, 
and  estimating  food  values.  (Do  not  attempt  systematic 
study  of  latter.) 

III.  Marketing. 

IV.  Preparation  of  focd  from  list  under  (lA^)  seventh  year 
as  called  for  in  cooking  menus  designed  under  II  above. 
Preserving  and  principles  of  sterilization,  frozen  dishes, 
saiads,  and  dressings. 

V.  Carry  out  instructions  of  (VI)  under  seventh  year. 


CHAPTEE  XVIL 


EECESS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES. 

The  recess  problem  is  always  an  important  one  in  the 
routine  of  school  management.  The  traditional  attitude  of 
the  teacher  toward  recess  is  that  this  is  her  opportunity  for 
idleness,  and  a  care-free  attitude;  that,  so  far  as  the  pupils  are 
concerned,  they  are  free  to  do  pretty  much  as  they  please. 
The  result  is  often  rioting  and  brutality  on  the  part  of  the 
children,  which  lead  to  trouble  with  neighbors  and  the  par- 
ents of  the  younger  children,  and  usually,  at  the  least,  a 
spirit  of  turbulence  which  passes  into  the  school  room  itself 
and  destroys  whatever  good  results  have  come  from  the 
teacher's  school  management. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  recess  period  of  well  regulated  plays 
and  games,  in  which  the  teacher  takes  part,  gives  her  a  con- 
trol over  the  children  which  she  could  not  otherwise  secure, 
provides  a  period  of  really  healthful  relaxation  and  recrea- 
tion in  place  of  the  contamination  of  various  degenerative 
tendencies,  and  in  itself  proves  quite  as  educative  as  any 
other  period  of  the  day.  The  remoter  results  are  a  group 
of  children  of  increasingly  courteous  behaviour  at  home  and 
on  the  street.  On  the  one  hand  is  a  school  which  is  orderly 
under  restraint,  on  the  other  a  school  of  a  growing,  healthy 
school  spirit. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  explain  the  theory  of  the  educative 
value  of  plays  and  games.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  students  of 
educational  psychology  have  pretty  well  established  the 
principle  that  the  plays  and  games  have  an  exceedingly  im- 
portant part  in  moral  as  well  as  physical  upbuilding,  includ- 
ing even  the  laying  of  the  groundwork  for  patriotic  impulses. 
Any  play  instinct  unsatisfied  at  its  nascent  period  leaves  a 

152 


RECESS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES. 


15B 


weakened  physical  and  mental  organism,  easily  perverted  in 
later  years.  The  teacher  should  consult  the  works  of  Gulick 
and  of  Johnson,  Ginn,  particularly  the  latter's  "Education 
by  Plays  and  Games'^  and  "What  to  Do  at  Eecess." 

The  outlines  of  this  chapter  follow  Johnson  largely  and 
have  been  tested  out  with  good  results  in  the  schools  of 
Berlin. 

Play  must  be  as  nearly  free  and  spontaneous  as  possible; 
the  teacher  leading,  not  directing. 

The  way  to  start  a  new  or  an  old  game  is  for  the  teacher 
to  commence  playing  it  with  whatever  children  are  at  hand 
and  ready  to  join  her,  others  will  fall  in  fast  enough  and  the 
whole  will  be  spontaneous  and  natural.  If,  however,  the 
mistake  is  made  of  first  formalizing  the  game,  reducing 
everything  to  a  mechanical  exactness,  it  will  surely  require 
a  truant  officer  to  keep  the  children  on  the  school  grounds, 
as  it  now  does  to  keep  them  in  school. 

A  List  of  Games  for  Eeceiss.  Usei. 

GRADE  I. 

''Blind  Man's  Buff.'' 

A  sense  training  game  especially  adapted  to  Grades  I 
and  II. 

Pupils  join  hands  in  a  ring  with  the  blindfolded  one 
inside.  The  teacher  then  touches  from  two  to  six  pupils,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  ring,  and  these,  leaving  the  circle, 
move  freely  about  in  the  ring.  It  must  tag  one  of  these  and 
by  the  sound  of  the  voice  or  by  the  sense  of  touch  must 
identify  him.  If  correct,  the  one  tagged  becomes  it,  all 
the  others  forming  into  line  again  until  the  new  it  is  blind- 
folded and  the  game  repeated. 

Modification  (a).  It,  being  blindfolded,  is  gently  turned 
around  two  or  three  times.  The  teacher  then  names  some 
pupil  in  the  ring  and  it  must  go  to  the  point  where  he  thinks 
this  pupil  is.  If  he  locates  the  right  one  they  exchange 
places  and  repeat,  but  if  the  location  is  wrong  then  the  one 
named  says,  "Here  am  1,"  and  it  tries  again. 


154        ■  RECESS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES. 


Modification  (b).  It,  blindfolded^  stands  in  the  center  of 
the  ring;  then  the  teacher  directs  the  ring  to  circle  about 
nntil  the  positions  are  changed,  or  the  "grand  right  and  left" 
movement  may  be  substituted  for  the  "All  hands  around." 
When  a  halt  is  called  the  blindfolded  pupil  goes  to  the  ring 
and  touches  some  pupil,  who  says,  "Who  am  I!"  or  "Good 
morning."  If  it  recognizes  the  voice  correctly  and  names 
the  speaker,  they  exchange;  if  not,  it  tries  another  pupil. 

The  identification  may  be  by  touching  the  clothing,  hands, 
or  hair,  thus  training  the  sense  of  touch. 

''Drop  the  HandkercMef.^' 

Form  a  ring  facing  in.  It  passes  around  the  outside  and 
slowly  drops  the  handkerchief  behind  some  pupil.  This 
pupil,  as  soon  as  he  sees  the  handkerchief,  must  pick  it  up 
and  going  the  opposite  way  to  it  they  race  for  the  vacant 
place  in  the  ring.  If  it  gets  this  first  then  the  other  becomes 
if,  if  not,  the  first  it  tries  again. 

Eunning  is  the  chief  activity  here  but  attention  is  also 
necessary  and  the  elements  of  competition  in  the  race  are  in- 
troduced. 

GRADE  II. 

Sense  training  games  still  continue  as  in  Grade  I,  while 
"Drop  the  Handkerchief"  becomes  the  leading  game. 

''Cat  and  Mouse'' 

Form  a  ring  with  hands  joined;  the  cat,  who  is  it,  is  out- 
side the  ring  and  the  mouse  is  inside.  The  cat  must  tag  the 
mouse  but  those  in  the  ring  favor  the  mouse  by  holding 
hands  and  arms  so  as  to  keep  the  cat  from  breaking  through, 
or  if  he  does  get  inside  the  ring  raise  their  arms  to  let  the 
mouse  out.    Thus  it  strives  against  the  ring  and  the  mouse. 

When  the  cat  tags  the  mouse  the  latter  becomes  cat  and 
the  new  mouse  is  selected,  or  both  may  join  hands  and  a  new 
cat  and  mouse  be  taken,  the  first  two  who  failed  to  keep 
the  cat  from  breaking  through  the  line  being  the  ones  se- 
lected.   The  teacher  decides  this  point. 


EECESS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES. 


155 


GRADE  III. 

The  tag  and  simple  aimless  running  games  are  becoming 
too  elementary  now  and  if  jDersisted  in  will  result  in  the 
"fraid  cat/'^  milksop,  and  "Miss  Xancy"  later  on. 

It  is  the  shock  resisting,  temper  trying,  "grit'^  developing 
game  that  is  useful  now, — impact  games  where  bodily  com- 
fort depends  upon  the  exercise  of  foresight. 

Dare  Base. 

This  is  an  ideal  game  for  this  grade  and  the  next.  The 
ground  is  laid  out  as  in  the  diagram  but  the  dimensions  may 
vary  greatly  to  meet  conditions. 


1) 

A 

c 

2 

1 

c 

B 

10'  15' 

E            15'  10' 

DAKE  BASE. 


A  and  B  are  goals  in  which  the  opposing  groups  start. 
DE  is  the  base  line,  where  the  two  catchers  are  to  stand,  that 
is,  at  1  and  2.  At  a  signal  the  A  group  must  pass  over  to  B 
and  the  B  group  to  A,  and  while  thus  crossing  the  space  CC 
any  player  may  be  tagged  by  either  catcher,  except  that  no- 
body can  be  tagged  when  actually  standing  on  the  line  DE. 

Any  player  tagged  on  the  free  spaces  C,  C,  must  retire 
from  the  game.  ISTo  player  may  turn  back  after  once  leaving 
a  goal  but  must  pass  over  to  the  other  side;  he  may  rest  a 
moment  on  the  base  line  if  necessary.  Not  more  than  ten 
players  should  be  on  each  side.  The  side  whose  players  are 
all  tagged  out  first  is  the  loser. 

A  new  game  is  started  by  taking  the  first  two  tagged  for 
the  catchers. 

Boys  and  girls  alike  play  this  game. 


156 


RECESS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES. 


Hill  Dill. 

This  is  a  progressive  modification  of  Dare  Base,  or  at  least 
is  a  suitable  game  to  follow  it. 


< 
o 

FREE  TERRITORY 

A  S 

u 

o 

10' 

80' 

10' 

HILL  DILL. 

In  this  game  the  ground  is  laid  out  as  shown,  but  any  rea- 
sonable dimension  will  answer,  of  course.  The  players  mass 
in  one  goal  and  the  catcher  stands  in  the  other  goal  as  at  A. 
The  catcher  says  "Hill  Dill,  come  over  the  hill"  and  all  start 
for  his  goal.  The  catcher  tags  any  player  in  the  "free  ter- 
ritory," and  as  soon  as  one  is  tagged  he  becomes  a  catcher  and 
at  once  commences  to  tag  dthers.  When  all  are  either 
tagged  or  in  the  new  goal  the  catchers  line  up  opposite  and 
the  same  process  is  repeated.  The  one  tagged  last  becomes 
the  new  catcher  for  the  next  game.  In  some  cases  it  is  best 
to  take  the  one  first  tagged  instead.  It  will  readily  be  seen 
how  these  last  two  games  lead  directly  to  football  and  basket 
ball. 

Catcli  Ball 

A  ball  made  from  an  old  sweater  or  jacket  tightly  rolled 
and  tied  into  a  spherical  shape,  say  eight  inches  to  ten  inches 
in  diameter,  will  serve,  though  a  medicine  ball  or  football  is 
better.  The  players  form  a  circle  with  it  in  the  center.  It 
tosses  the  ball  quickly  to  some  player  who  must  catch  it.  If 
he  fails  he  becomes  it;  if  not,  the  original  it  tries  again. 
Quick  passing  in  unexpected  directions  gives  life  to  this 
game. 

Modification  (a).  It  tosses  the  ball  up  and  at  the  same 
time  calls  the  name  of  a  player  who  must  catch  the  ball  or 
become  it. 


EECESS  PLAYS 


AND 


GAMES. 


157 


Circle  Ball 

A  medicine  ball,  football,  or  an  old  jacket  or  sweater  tied 
up  into  a  spherical  bundle  is  all  that  is  needed  in  the  game. 

Players  form  a  circle  but  do  not  join  hands,  and  they  stand 
far  enough  apart  to  let  the  catcher  and  chased  pass  freely 
through.  It,  with  the  ball  in  his  hands,  stands  in  the  center 
of  the  ring.  He  tosses  the  ball  to  any  player,  who  must  catch 
it  and  place  it  on  the  ground  in  the  center  of  the  circle,  and 
must  then  chase  it  and  tag  him  before  he  can  get  to  the  ball 
and  touch  it.  If  it  does  get  to  the  ball  before  being  tagged, 
then  he  goes  into  the  line  and  the  one  who  was  chasing  him 
becomes  it. 

The  progressive  development  of  these  two  games  is  readily 
seen,  as  well  as  their  relation  to  basket  ball  and  football. 

GRADE  IV. 

This  is  the  age  when  pupils  begin  to  ^^group  up."  Girls 
'^pledge"  themselves  to  keep  ^^secret"  very  important  con- 
fidence. Imagination  runs  riot.  Boys  organize  expeditions, 
become  Indians,  pirates,  build  camps,  dig  caves,  etc.  It  is  a 
melodramatic,  uncanny,  mysterious,  glorious,  golden  age, — a 
hero-worshiping  period  when  victors  are  looked  up  to.  The 
games  now  ought  to  give  some  opportunity  for  individual 
prowess.  "Hill  Dill"  is  good.  "Center  Ball"  excellent. 
"Relay  Eaces"  of  short  duration  valuable  when  sparingly  used. 

Bull  in  the  Ring. 

Form  a  ring;  hands  tightly  grasped.  The  bull,  inside  the 
ring,  rushes  the  line  to  break  through.  Hands  must  hold 
tight.  If  he  does  break  through  all  join  in  a  chase  and  the 
one  who  catches  him  first  becomes  the  bull.  Here  the  hero 
idea  predominates. 

One-Legged  Race. 

Competition  and  coordination  are  involved.  A  line  of 
boys  hop  on  one  foot  over  a  given  course  not  over  thirty  feet. 
This   game  is   sometimes   rendered  injurious   by  allowing 


158 


RECESS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES. 


players  to  always  hop  on  the  right  foot;  first  the  right  and 
then  the  left  should  be  nsed  in  the  various  trials. 

Three  Deep. 

This  is  a  game  requiring  "head  work." 

A  ring  of  players  forms  facing  in  and  at  least  two  feet 
between  players;  behind  these  a  second  ring  forms.  This 
second  ring  consists  of  the  same  number  as  the  first,  so  that 
one  player  stands  behind  each  in  the  front  row. 

There  are  two  free  players,  a  chaser  and  the  one  chased. 
The  chaser  is  it.  It  tries  to  tag  the  other,  who  runs  to  keep 
out  of  his  way.  The  chased  has  the  privilege  at  any  time 
of  stepping  in  front  of  any  member  of  the  inside  ring,  and 
when  he  does  so  the  outside  one  of  the  three  now  in  line  must 
be  come  the  chased.  In  this  w^ay  all  must  be  intensely  atten- 
tive, for  it  is  looking  for  this  third  or  outside  boy  to  tag  him. 

Wherever  it  tags  the  runner  or  the  third  player,  who  ought 
to  be  running  but  has  forgotten  to  do  so,  then  it  becomes 
the  runner  and  the  one  just  tagged  becomes  it. 

Skill  in  quickly  stepping  into  a  front  place  and  quickness 
in  seeing  this,  on  the  part  of  the  third  in  the  row,  makes  this 
a  very  exciting  game. 

GRADE  V. 

The  characteristics  have  not  changed  much  except  that  co- 
operation and  competition  have  become  more  pronounced. 
''Hill  Dill,"  ''Three  Deep,"  and  "Bull  in  the  Eing"  still  serve. 

Belay  Race. 

Arrange  two  or  three  parallel  rows  of  players  facing  one 
way. 

Fifty  feet  or  less  ahead  of  each  row  place  a  goal  keeper. 
At  a  signal  the  front  player  in  each  row  runs  to  his  goal 
keeper,  touches  his  hand  or  passes  completely  around  him, 
and  runs  back  to  the  rear  of  the  line  from  which  he  started. 
On  his  way  he  passes  a  stick  or  flag,  which  he  has  held  in  his 
hand  from  the  start,  to  the  front  player  in  his  line,  who  at 


U 
< 

OS 

< 

LU 


RECESS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES. 


159 


once  repeats  what  the  first  player  did.  Thus  each  pupil  runs 
from  the  original  front  line  to  the  goal  and  back  to  the  rear. 
AYhen  the  last  one  in  the  line  has  touched  the  goal  and  re- 
turned the  flag  or  other  object  to  the  player  who  first  started, 
the  game  is  finished,  and  the  line  of  players  finishing  first  are 
winners. 

Stride  Ball 

Two  eight-pound  or  ten-pound  medicine  balls  are  needed 
for  this,  but  a  rag  ball  can  be  made  and  covered  with  heavy 
cloth  or  canvas,  which  will  cost  nothing  and  answer  very 
well. 

Two  lines  are  arranged  side  by  side  all  facing  the  same 
way.  The  feet  are  placed  wide  apart  so  that  the  ball  can  be 
rolled  between  the  rows  of  legs  on  either  side.  The  players 
should  stand  just  far  enough  apart  in  line  to  be  able  to  touch 
each  other  when  the  arms  are  extended  in  front.  The  front 
player  in  each  line  has  the  ball  and  all  the  pla3'ers  bend  for- 
ward so  that  the  hands  nearly  come  to  the  ground.  At  a  sig- 
nal the  front  players  roll  the  ball  backward  between  the  legs 
and  each  player  gives  it  a  shove,  if  necessary,  to  keep  it  going. 
When  the  last  player  in  the  line  gets  the  ball  he  runs  to  the 
front  and  repeats  the  process,  and  so  on  until  all  the  players 
have  had  one  chance  to  start  the  ball.  AVhen  the  player  who 
first  started  the  ball  on  either  line  has  returned  to  the 
front  with  the  ball  the  game,  is  finished. 

The  players  move  back  a  step  each  time  while  the  ball  is 
being  brought  to  the  head  of  the  line  so  that  the  head  of 
the  line  always  is  at  the  same  place. 

If  a  ball  rolls  outside  the  line  of  feet  it  must  be  returned  to 
the  place  where  it  left  the  line  and  be  started  again. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  fifth  grade  games  in  the  whole  list. 

Jvmping. 

Standing  and  running  broad  jumps,  "hop,  skip  and 
jump,"  standing  and  running  high  jumps,  are  all  excellent 
for  tliis  grade. 


160 


KECESS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES. 


GRADE  VI. 

Now  for  the  first  time  boys  and  girls  part  company  in 
most  of  their  games.  The  ^^clan  life"  of  the  race  is  being  re- 
enacted.  "Gangs'^  are  apt  to  be  formed  and  it  is  the  teach- 
ers business  to  so  open  opportunities  that  this  instinct  is 
exercised  in  games  of  group  competition.  '^^Stride  Ball" 
seems  to  fail  in  this  grade.  With  the  tendency  to  organize 
and  roam  about,  comes  the  desire  for  intense  physical  activ- 

ity. 

Relay  Races. 

A  run  around  some  road,  park,  or  along  streets  that  give 
from  one  sixth  to  one  half  mile  provide  room  for  this  race, 
or  it  may  be  a  "straight  away  and  back"  race  of  one  fourth  to 
one  half  mile.  Two  or  more  boys  start,  each  holding  a  piece 
of  wood  or  a  small  stone  in  his  hand.  The  first  group  run, 
say,  a  hundred  yards,  to  another  group  of  equal  number,  each 
handing  his  block  or  stone  to  his  mate.  The  second  group 
then  runs  a  hundred  yards  more  to  another  relay,  and  so  on 
until  the  last  group  is  reached;  these  turn  back  and  the 
process  is  reversed,  the  group  first  starting  finally  returning 
to  the  starting  line.  The  boy  first  in  wins  the  race  for  his 
set. 

Girls  may  use  this  same  race,  making  the  distances  short, 
not  more  than  one  hundred  feet  to  each  relay. 

Sheep  Fold. 

This  is  a  good  game  for  both  boys  and  girls,  especially  the 
latter.  Form  a  ring  as  in  "Cat  and  Mouse,"  the  sheep  inside 
and  the  wolf  outside.  The  wolf  must  tag  the  sheep,  so  he 
tries  to  break  in,  the  ring  meanwhile  striving  to  hold  hands 
so  as  to  prevent.  If  he  does  break  in,  the  ring  opens  to  let 
the  sheep  out  but  closes  again  to  keep  the  wolf  in.  When 
the  sheep  is  caught  the  two  who  permitted  the  wolf  to  get  in 
or  out  must  take  their  turn  as  wolf  and  sheep. 


RECESS  PLAYS  AND  GAMES. 


the  "scent/'  the  skill  displayed  by  the  hares  in  bewildering 
the  dogs,  all  contribute  to  make  this  a  good  after-school  game. 

Truck. 

This  is  a  fine  old-fashioned  game  for  eighth  grade  boys. 
It  requires  no  apparatus  other  than  home-made  bats  and 
"trucks.'^ 

The  "truck'-  is  a  six-inch  or  eight-inch  wheel  cut  out  of  a 
one-inch  hardwood  board.  The  bats  are  pieces  of  sapling  or 
limbs  of  trees  taken  from  the  woodpile.  They  should  be 
about  three  feet  long  and  one  inch  or  one  and  one  quarter 
inches  in  diameter. 

A  common  road  or  back  street,  where  there  is  little  pass- 
ing, is  an  ideal  playground  for  this  game. 

Sides  are  chosen  and  perhaps  ten  players  line  up  facing 
each  other  and  about  thirty  feet  to  fifty  feet  apart. 

The  captain  who  is  to  start  the  game  takes  the  "truck"  in 
his  hand  and  rolls  it  swiftly  towards  his  opponents,  who  must 
stop  it  with  their  bats.  If  they  do  so  stop  it  the  captain  of 
that  side  now  rolls  it  back,  the  other  side  having  to  stop  it  if 
they  can.  If  the  truck  rolls  past  the  players  on  either  side 
that  side  must  retreat  as  far  as  the  truck  rolls  before  being 
stopped  and  the  other  side  advances.  So  back  and  forth 
they  roll  the  truck,  the  sides  advancing  or  retreating  ac- 
cording as  the  truck  stops  or  is  stopped.  The  game  is  played 
for  a  certain  number  of  minutes,  agreed  upon  before  it  com- 
mences. When  the  time  is  up  the  referee  signals  and  the 
position  of  the  truck  with  reference  to  the  starting  line  at 
that  moment  determines  which  side  has  won. 

If  the  truck  is  in  the  hands  of  a  player  when  the  signal  is 
given  he  must  not  roll  it  but  must  stand  still  until  the 
referee  notes  his  position. 

If  the  truck  is  rolling,  then  the  place  where  it  is  stopped 
by  the  players,  or  where  it  stops  itself,  if  the  players  fail  to 
stop  it,  is  the  final  point  for  determining  who  won.  The 
starting  line  is  just  half  way  between  the  players  as  they  first 
line  up,  and  must  be  marked  in  some  way  before  the  game 
commences. 


CHAPTEE  XVIIL 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ANY  TOPIC. 

Hearing  recitations  is  not  teaching.  The  teacher  is  not 
worthy  of  the  name  who  is  not  imparting  anything  to  chil- 
dren, but  is  simply  steering  them  through  a  textbook.  The 
following  outline  of  the  ^^five  steps  in  teaching"  is  added  to 
the  program  of  studies  as  a  guide  to  teachers  who  are  ambi- 
tious to  become  such  in  deed  as  well  as  in  name.  The  out- 
line is  applicable  to  the  largest  part  of  school  work  in  the 
third  year  and  upwards, — at  least  to  arithmetic,  geography, 
history,  physiology,  and  civics. 

The  subject  should  first  be  divided  into  a  coherent  system 
of  topics.  The  chapter  headings  of  textbooks  usually  do 
this.  Then  each  topic  should  be  taught  as  a  whole  in  the 
following  manner: 

I.    Peepaeation  (books  closed). 

(a)  The  teacher  discovers  to  the  class  and  to  herself,  by 
skillful  questioning  or  otherwise,  what  the  pupils  already  know 
of  the  topic.  There  are  few  topics,  even  if  under  treatment 
for  the  first  time,  about  which  pupils  do  not  already  know 
something.  This  step  will  of  course  usually  be  a  means  of 
reviewing  previous  work. 

(b)  After  the  teacher  has  exhausted  the  present  knowledge 
of  the  class  upon  the  topic,  she  carries  as  far  as  possible  the 
process  of  requiring  the  class  to  predict,  on  the  basis  of  what 
it  already  knows,  what  it  will  probably  learn.  Often  the  class 
will  predict  pretty  accurately  the  essentials  of  the  topic.  Of 
course  in  this  case  the  succeeding  steps  may  be  greatly 
abridged. 


164 


TEACHING  OF  ANY  TOPIC. 


165 


This  step  establishes  the  all  important  connection  between 
what  the  pupils  already  know  and  what  they  are  to  learn. 
The  step  may  take  from  half  a  period  to  several  periods  on 
successive  days. 

II.    Presentation  (books  closed). 

The  teacher  sums  up  to  the  class  what  they  already  know 
and  explains  the  whole  course  of  the  new  topic  clearly  and 
briefly,  pausing  to  re-explain  more  carefully  whenever  a  pupil 
seems  not  to  be  following.  Of  course  this  step  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  story  telling  discussed  under  impressional  lan- 
guage, which  see.  It  is  substantially  giving  the  class  a 
"birdseye  view."  It  may  involve  one  or  more  experiments 
or  other  objective  lessons.  In  arithmetic,  the  teacher  will 
work  out  and  explain  several  illustrative  examples. 

The  step  is  an  important  one  and  requires  that  the  teacher 
should  constantly  be  growing  in  the  power  of  interesting  lec- 
turing.   It  should  usually  be  complete  in  one  period. 

III.    Assimilation  (books  open). 

This  is  the  step  which  takes  time  and  it  is  the  step  which 
taxes  the  teacher's  ingenuity  for  illustrative  material.  It 
may  usually  begin  with  careful  class  reading  of  the  chapter  in 
the  textbook. 

In  arithmetic,  it  is  the  step  at  which  pupils  work  out  a 
large  number  of  illustrative  examples. 

In  geography,  it  is  the  point  at  which  sand  table,  modeling, 
magazine  and  newspaper  clipping,  and  mounting  of  photo- 
graphs, field  excursions,  class  experimentation,  come  in. 

In  history,  it  is  the  time  for  collateral  reading,  dramatiza- 
tion, study  of  photographs  and  other  pictures,  map  drawing, 
and  history  themes. 

In  high  school  science,  it  is  the  laboratory  period. 

The  teacher  will  need  to  give  frequent  short  quizzes  to 
make  sure  that  pupils  are  following. 

The  step  may  need  from  one  period  to  several  weeks. 


166 


TEACHING  OF  ANY  TOPIC. 


IV.    Study  (books,  library,  notes, — all  open). 

The  teacher  should  remain  silent;  this  is  the  time  for  pupils 
1.0  depend  upon  themselves. 

Essentially,  the  step  is  an  opportunity  for  the  pupil  to  pre- 
pare for  the  next  step,  by  systematization  of  what  he  has 
gained  in  previous  steps.  He  should  be  assisted  by  a  board 
syllabus  prepared  sometimes  by  the  teacher,  sometimes  by  a 
pupil.  In  the  two  upper  grades  he  should  be  required  to  pre- 
pare his  own  syllabus. 

Time  allowance,  one  or  two  periods. 

V.    Recitation  (books  and  all  other  help  closed). 

The  reverse  of  the  second  step.  The  pupil  makes  a  coher- 
ent presentation  or  explanation  of  the  subject.  The  teacher 
should  remain  silent  for  the  most  part.  Especially  avoid 
dragging  the  pupil  through  by  leading  questions;  the  place  for 
that  is  under  the  first  step. 

The  recitation  is  a  most  important  side  of  the  work.  It 
clinches  the  pupil's  grasp  upon  the  topic  as  nothing  else  can. 
Moreover,  it  is  an  invaluable  form  of  language  work,  being  one 
of  the  best  possible  forms  of  composition. . 

In  arithmetic,  the  recitation  consists  mainly  in  sending 
pupils  to  the  board  to  work  out  there  and  explain  various 
forms  of  examples  illustrating  the  topic.  Arithmetic  recita- 
tions need  a  longer  time  than  others,  sufficient  for  every  pupil 
to  have  explained  at  least  one  example, — more  if  possible. 

In  geography,  history,  and  other  subjects,  the  recitation 
will  usually  be  from  a  syllabus.  The  pupil  should  be  required 
to  illustrate  his  statements,  as  he  goes  along,  with  apparatus. 

In  these  subjects,  from  one  to  three  periods  will  be  needed. 

Eeferences. 

Outlines  of  Educational  Doctrine,  Ch.  Ill,  Her- 

bart  MacM. 

Method  of  the  Recitation,  McMurry  MacM. 

Essentials  of  Methods,  DeGarmo  Heath 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  TESTING. 

An  essential  part  of  any  work  which  claims  to  be  conducted 
on  scientific  lines  is  constant  Verification.  This  applies  to 
school  work  as  much  as  to  any  othei-.  The  teacher,  or  super- 
intendent, or  school  system,  is  hound  to  show  results.  The 
results  must  be  real  educational  values,  true  mental  growth, 
and  these  things  are  hard  to  prove;  but,  none  the  less,  the 
teacher  must  convince  himself  and  the  community  that  there 
are  reasonable  grounds  for  supposing  the  existence  of  such 
values. 

To  this  end,  the  teacher  must  constantly  test  the  steps  in 
the  educational  process.  The  process  as  a  whole  is  not  suscep- 
tible of  being  tested  except  by  the  whole  of  the  pupil's  after 
life  and  perhaps  not  even  then;  but  the  steps  can  be  tested. 
The  teacher  cannot  safely  trust  to  his  impression  that  a  topic 
01  a  month's  or  term's  work  has  resulted  in  the  pupils  know- 
ing what  they  have  been  taught.  He  must  constantly  test 
his  work  by  impartial  examination  and  base  all  future  teach- 
ing upon  the  result  of  that  examination.  He  should  usually 
keep  a  careful  record  of  the  results  of  such  examinations,  hav- 
ing regard  (a)  to  the  records  of  individual  pupils,  (b)  to  the 
successive  general  averages  of  the  class  as  a  whole.  Certain 
principles  which  should  govern  examinations  are  here  noted: 

I.  A  single  examination  is  of  little  value;  the  average  of 
two  or  more  examinations  will  usually  give  a  close  approxima- 
tion to  the  truth.  On  any  one  occasion  the  conditions  of 
temper,  climate,  outside  disturbance,  etc.,  may  be  such  as  to- 
invalidate  results. 

II.  Written  examinations  are  not  the  only  form;  they  are 
commonly  the  most  available  form. 


167 


168 


EXAMINATIONS  AND  TESTING. 


III.  Examinations  should  not  be  given  by  the  person  who 
has  taught  the  class.  It  will  eliminate  the  personal  equation 
to  have  them  given  by  some  other  person. 

IV.  Examination  papers  should  not  be  corrected  by  either 
examiner  or  teacher.  There  are  two  personal  equations  to  be 
eliminated  here. 

V.  Examinations  should  not  be  carried  to  the  point  of 
worrying  children  unduly,  nor  should  they  be  omitted  because 
some  children  fret  over  them.  Life  has  many  tests  and  it  is 
important  that  children  should  learn  to  meet  tests  coura- 
geously and  confidently. 

VI.  Examinations  should  never  be  announced  beforehand 
unless  absolutely  necessary.  An  examination  upon  current 
school  work  of  which  the  pupils  know  beforehand  and  for 
which  they  specifically  prepare  themselves  is  no  examination, 
hut  merely  a  written  recitation. 


KEY  TO  ABBEEVIATIONS  DSED. 


A.  B.  C. 

A.  M.  &  G. 

Appleton 

B.  H.  S.  &  Co. 

D.  M.  &  Co. 
D.  P.  &  Co. 

Eel.  Pub.  Co. 

Flanagan 

Ginn 

Holt 
Heath 

H.  M.  &  Co. 

I.  B.  &  Co. 

L.  &  S. 

L.  B.  &  Co. 

Long:mans 

MacM. 

M.  M.  &  Co. 

M.  W.  Co. 

P.  S.  Pub.  Co. 
Putnams. 

R.  M.  &  Co. 

S.  F.  &  Co. 

Silver 

T.  B.  &  Co. 
Univ.  Pub.  Co. 


American  Book  Co. 
Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Grover. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Benjamin  H.  Sanborn  &  Co. 

Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Education  Publishing  Co. 

A.  Flanagan  &  Co. 

Ginn  &  Co. 

Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Ivison,  Blakeman  &  Co. 

Lee  &  Shepard. 
Little,  Brown  &  Co. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

The  Macmillan  Co. 
Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 
McGill-Warner  Co. 

Public  School  Publishing  Co. 
G.  P.  Putnam  Co. 

Rand,  McNallj  &  Co. 

Scott,  Foresman  &  Co. 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Thompson,  Brown  &  Co. 

University  Publishing  Co. 


169 


